
In this study, first the pedal curves as the geometric locus of perpendicular projections to the Frenet vectors of a space curve were defined and the Frenet vectors, curvature, and torsion of these pedal curves were calculated. Second, for each pedal curve, Smarandache curves were defined by taking the Frenet vectors as position vectors. Finally, the expressions of Frenet vectors, curvature, and torsion related to the main curves were obtained for each Smarandache curve. Thus, new curves were added to the curve family.
Citation: Süleyman Şenyurt, Filiz Ertem Kaya, Davut Canlı. Pedal curves obtained from Frenet vector of a space curve and Smarandache curves belonging to these curves[J]. AIMS Mathematics, 2024, 9(8): 20136-20162. doi: 10.3934/math.2024981
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In this study, first the pedal curves as the geometric locus of perpendicular projections to the Frenet vectors of a space curve were defined and the Frenet vectors, curvature, and torsion of these pedal curves were calculated. Second, for each pedal curve, Smarandache curves were defined by taking the Frenet vectors as position vectors. Finally, the expressions of Frenet vectors, curvature, and torsion related to the main curves were obtained for each Smarandache curve. Thus, new curves were added to the curve family.
The existence of curves in nature is a natural phenomenon that has been extensively studied by scientists. Researchers have formulated theories to understand the characteristics of these curves by careful examinations and valuable analysis. Therefore, the theory of curves has played a significant role in the field of differential geometry, making it an intriguing area of research.
To gain further insights and theoretical knowledge, it is the best practice to establish an orthonormal system on a curve. By doing so, scientists can gather more information and delve deeper into the properties of the curve. For instance, if the torsion of a curve is found to be zero, it indicates that the curve is planar, which concludes that if the torsion is nonzero, it signifies that the curve is a space curve. Moreover, the behavior of a curve can also be determined by examining its harmonic curvature defined as the ratio of the curvature to torsion. If the harmonic curvature function is constant, then the curve is classified as a helix. A Salkowski curve, on the other hand, is special due to its constant curvature and nonconstant torsion [1].
In addition, there exist other special paired curves possessing some mathematical relations between them. Examples of such pairs of curves include involute-evolute curves, Bertrand and Mannheim curves, as well as Successor curves and Smarandache curves. These curves have been extensively studied, contributing to a wealth of knowledge in this field [1,2,3,4,5].
Another interesting aspect of curve analysis involves the geometric location of perpendicular projection points onto the tangent or normal vector of a curve from a point that does not lie on the curve. This location is defined as the pedal (or contra-pedal) curve (see Figure 1).
Extensive research has been conducted on these types of curves, and numerous sources provide valuable insights into their properties [6,7,8]. The study of such curves has been conducted using various frames in different spaces. Researchers have explored these curves using different approaches and continue to make significant contributions to this field of study [9,10,11,12,13].
In this study, pedal curves belonging to the tangent, principal normal, and binormal vectors of a space curve are defined, and their Frenet vectors, curvature, and torsion functions are calculated. Next, Smarandache curves are defined by taking Frenet elements of each pedal curve as the position vectors. Finally, the corresponding Frenet apparatus are obtained and expressed in terms of the main curve. Thus, new curves are added to to the literature for the theory of curves. Let us recall the basic notions that will be used through the paper. For given a differentiable curve α(t), the formulae of Frenet vector fields and curvature functions are defined as in the followings:
T=α′‖α′‖,N=B∧T=(α′∧α″)∧α′‖α′∧α″‖‖α′‖,B=α′∧α″‖α′∧α″‖, | (1.1) |
κ=‖α′∧α″‖‖α′‖3,τ=det(α′,α″,α‴)‖α′∧α″‖2, | (1.2) |
T′=vκN,N′=v(−κT+τB),B′=−vτN, | (1.3) |
where v=‖α′‖, and "∧" stands for the vector product operator [8,14].
Definition 1.1. Let Tα denote the tangent vector of a regular curve α in E2. The geometric locus of the perpendicular projection of points onto a tangent vector from a given point P∈E2 that is not on the curve is called the pedal curve of the curve α [15].
Theorem 1.2. [15] The pedal curve of a regular curve α according to the point P in E2 is given by the following equality:
αP(t)=α(t)+⟨P−α(t),Tα⟩Tα. | (1.4) |
Definition 1.3. Let Nα be the normal vector of a regular curve α in E2. The geometric locus of perpendicular projection of points onto the normal vector from a given point P∈E2 that is not on the curve is called the contra-pedal curve of the curve α [15].
Theorem 1.4. [15] The contra-pedal curve of a regular curve α according to the point P in E2 is given by the following equality:
α⊥P(t)=α(t)+⟨P−α(t),Nα⟩Nα. | (1.5) |
Example 1.5. According to the origin O(0,0), the pedal and contra-pedal curves of an ellipse that is parameterized as α(t)=(2cos(t),sin(t)) in E2 is given by the following relations (see Figure 2).
αP(t)=(2cost1+3sin2t,4sint1+3sin2t),α⊥P(t)=(7costsin2t1+3sin2t,3sin3t−costsint1+3sin2t). |
Definition 2.1. Let T be the tangent vector of a given regular curve α in E3. The geometric locus of the perpendicular projection of points onto a tangent vector from a point P∈E3 that is not on the curve is called the T−pedal curve of the curve α according to P.
Theorem 2.2. The equation of the T−pedal curve of a given regular curve α is as follows:
αT(t)=α(t)+⟨P−α(t),T(t)⟩T(t). | (2.1) |
Proof. Let P′ be a perpendicular projection point onto the tangent vector from the point P that is not on the curve α. The perpendicular projection vector →αP′ is calculated by the following formula:
→αP′=⟨αP,α′⟩‖α′‖2→α′. |
On the other hand, let αT(t) be the geometric location of the point P′. According to this, we obtain following equations:
→αP=→αP′+→P′P⇒→αP=⟨αP,α′⟩‖α′‖2→α′+→P′P⇒P′=α+⟨P−α,α′⟩‖α′‖2→α′⇒αT(t)=α(t)+⟨P−α(t),α′‖α′‖⟩α′‖α′‖. |
When the tangent vector from the relation (1.1) is taken into consideration, the proof of the theorem is completed.
With some subsequent algebraic operations, if u(t)=⟨P−α(t),T(t)⟩, then the relation (2.1) can be reduced to following:
αT(t)=α(t)+u(t)T(t). | (2.2) |
Specifically, if the point P is origin, then we have u(t)=−⟨α(t),T(t)⟩.
Theorem 2.3. Let αT be the T−pedal curve of the given curve α with unit speed, and {T1,N1,B1} denotes the Frenet vectors of the T−pedal curve of α. Then, among the Frenet vectors, the following relations exist:
T1=ω1(1+u)T+ω1uκN,N1=−η1ω1uκ(κ(1+u)2+u2κ3+(1+u)(uκ)′−uu′κ)T+η1ω1(1+u)(κ(1+u)2+u2κ3+(1+u)(uκ)′−uu′κ)N+(η1ω1τ(uκ)3+η1ω1uκτ(1+u)2)B,B1=η1τ(uκ)2T−η1(1+u)uκτN+η1(κ(1+u)2+u2κ3+(1+u)(uκ)′−uu′κ)B, |
where
ω1=1√(1+u′)2+(uκ)2,η1=1√τ2(uκ)4−(1+u′)2(uκτ)2+((1+u′)2κ+(1+u′)(uκ)′−uκ(u″−uκ2))2. |
Proof. By taking the necessary derivatives of the equality (2.2), we have
α′T=(1+u′)T+uκN,α″T=(u″−uκ2)T+((1+u′)κ+(uκ)′)N+uκτB,α‴T=(u‴−(uκ2)′−(1+u′)κ2−κ(uκ)′)T+(u″κ−uκ3−uκτ2+((1+u′)κ+(uκ)′)′)N+((1+u′)τκ+τ(uκ)′+(uκτ)′)B. | (2.3) |
Upon necessary algebraic operations that are performed, the following relations are obtained
α′T∧α″T=τ(uκ)2T−(1+u′)uκτN+((1+u′)2κ+(1+u′)(uκ)′−uκ(u″−uκ2))B,det(α′T,α″T,α‴T)=τ(uκ)2(u‴−(uκ2)′−(1+u′)κ2−κ(uκ)′)−uκτ(1+u′)(u″κ−uκ(κ2+τ2)+((1+u′)κ+(uκ)′)′)+((1+u′)2κ+(1+u′)(uκ)′−uκ(u″−uκ2))((1+u′)τκ+τ(uκ)′+(uκτ)′), | (2.4) |
‖α′T‖=√(1+u′)2+(uκ)2,‖α′T∧α″T‖=√τ2(uκ)4−(1+u′)2(uκτ)2+((1+u′)2κ+(1+u′)(uκ)′−uκ(u″−uκ2))2⋅ | (2.5) |
By substituting the given equalities above into the relations at (1.1), the proof is completed.
Theorem 2.4. Let αT be the T−pedal curve of the unit speed curve α, and let κ1 and τ1 denote the curvature and torsion functions for αT, respectively. Then, the following relations exist among the curvatures:
κ1=(τ2(uκ)4−(1+u′)2(uκτ)2+((1+u′)2κ+(1+u′)(uκ)′−uκ(u″−uκ2))2)12((1+u′)2+(uκ)2)32,τ1=τ(uκ)2(u‴−(uκ2)′−(1+u′)κ2−κ(uκ)′)−uκτ(1+u′)(u″κ−uκ(κ2+τ2)+((1+u′)κ+(uκ)′)′)+((1+u′)2κ+(1+u′)(uκ)′−uκ(u″−uκ2))((1+u′)τκ+τ(uκ)′+(uκτ)′)τ2(uκ)4−(1+u′)2(uκτ)2+((1+u′)2κ+(1+u′)(uκ)′−uκ(u″−uκ2))2. |
Proof. By substituting the given relations (2.4) and (2.5) into (1.2), the curvatures can be found, completing the proof.
Corollary 2.5. The following relations exist between the Frenet vectors of the T−pedal curve and their derivatives
T′1=μ1κ1N1,N′1=μ1(−κ1T1+τ1B1),B′1=−μ1τ1N1, | (2.6) |
where μ1=‖α′T‖.
Definition 2.6. By taking the tangent and the principal normal vectors of the T−pedal curve as position vectors, we define a regular curve called the T1N1 Smarandache curve as follows:
α1=T1+N1√2. | (2.7) |
Theorem 2.7. Let Tα1, Nα1, and Bα1 be the Frenet vectors of the T1N1 Smarandache curve. The relations among Frenet vectors are given as follows:
Tα1=−κ1T1+κ1N1+τ1B1√2κ21+τ21,Nα1=Bα1∧Tα1,Bα1=−(κ1x3+τ1x2)T1+(κ1x3+τ1x1)N1−(κ1x2+κ1x1)B1√(κ1x3+τ1x2)2+(κ1x3+τ1x1)2+(κ1x2+κ1x1)2, |
where x1=−μ21κ21−(μ1κ1)′√2,x2=(μ1κ1)′−μ21(κ21+τ21)√2,x3=μ21κ1τ1+(μ1τ1)′√2.
Proof. The derivatives of the T1N1 curve up to the third degree are as given below.
α′1=μ1(−κ1T1+κ1N1+τ1B1)√2,α″1=x1T1+x2N1+x3B1,α‴1=(x′1−μ1κ1x2)T1+(x′2+μ1x1−μ1x3)N1+(x′3+μ1τ1x2)B1. | (2.8) |
By taking the vectoral product and computing the determinants of first and second derivatives of the curve α given in equality (2.8), we get the equality (2.9) as below:
α′1∧α″1=−μ1(κ1x3+τ1x2)√2T1+μ1(κ1x3+τ1x1)√2N1−μ1(κ1x2+κ1x1)√2B1,det(α′1,α″1,α‴1)=μ1√2((κ1x3+τ1x1)(x′2+μ1x1−μ1x3)−(κ1x3+τ1x2)(x′1−μ1κ1x2)−(κ1x2+κ1x1)(x′3+μ1τ1x2)). | (2.9) |
Moreover, by taking the norm of the first derivative of the curve α and the vectoral product of the first and second derivatives of α, we obtain the equality (2.10) as
‖α′1‖=μ1√2√2κ21+τ21,‖α′1∧α″1‖=μ1√2√(κ1x3+τ1x2)2+(κ1x3+τ1x1)2+(κ1x2+κ1x1)2. | (2.10) |
Finally, substituting the relations (2.8), (2.9), and (2.10) into (1.1) completes the proof.
Theorem 2.8. Let κα1 and τα1 denote the curvature and the torsion of the T1N1 Smarandache curve, respectively. The following relations exist among the curvatures as
κα1=2√(κ1x3+τ1x2)2+(κ1x3+τ1x1)2+(κ1x2+κ1x1)2μ21(2κ21+τ21)√2κ21+τ21,τα1=√2(κ1x3+τ1x1)(x′2+μ1x1−μ1x3)−√2(κ1x3+τ1x2)(x′1−μ1κ1x2)−√2(κ1x2+κ1x1)(x′3+μ1τ1x2)μ1(κ1x3+τ1x2)2+μ1(κ1x3+τ1x1)2+μ1(κ1x2+κ1x1)2. |
Proof. By using (2.9) and (2.10) to substitute into (1.2), the proof is completed.
Definition 2.9. By taking the tangent and the binormal vectors of the T−pedal curve as position vectors, we define a regular curve called the T1B1 Smarandache curve as follows:
α2=T1+B1√2. | (2.11) |
Theorem 2.10. Let Tα2, Nα2, and Bα2 be the Frenet vectors of the T1B1 Smarandache curve. The relations among Frenet vectors are given as follows:
Tα2=N1,Nα2=−κ1T1+τ1B1√κ21+τ21,Bα2=τ1T1+κ1B1√κ21+τ21. |
Proof. By taking the derivatives of (2.11), we first have
α′2=μ1(κ1−τ1)N1√2,α″2=−κ1μ21(κ1−τ1)T1+(μ1κ1−μ1τ1)′N1+τ1μ21(κ1−τ1)B1√2,α‴2=((−κ1μ21(κ1−τ1))′−κ1μ1(μ1κ1−μ1τ1)′′)T1+((μ1κ1−μ1τ1)′′−μ31(κ1−τ1)(κ21+τ21))N1+((τ1μ21(κ1−τ1))′+τ1μ1(μ1κ1−μ1τ1)′′)B1√2. | (2.12) |
Further, by taking norms and having required vector products, we have
α′2∧α″2=μ31(κ1−τ1)2(τ1T1+κ1B1)2,det(α′2,α″2,α‴2)=μ51(κ1−τ1)3(κ1τ1′−κ1′τ1)2√2, | (2.13) |
and
‖α′2‖=μ1(κ1−τ1)√2,‖α′2∧α″2‖=μ31(κ1−τ1)2√κ21+τ212. | (2.14) |
If we substitute relations (2.12), (2.13), and (2.14) into (1.1), the proof is completed.
Theorem 2.11. Let κα2 and τα2 denote the curvature and the torsion of the T1B1 Smarandache curve, respectively. The following relations exist among the curvatures as
κα2=√2κ21+2τ21(κ1−τ1),τα2=√2(κ1τ1′−κ1′τ1)μ1(κ1−τ1)(κ21+τ21). |
Proof. The proof is obvious by the substitution of (2.13) and (2.14) into (1.2).
Definition 2.12. By taking the principal normal and the binormal vectors of the T−pedal curve as position vectors, we define a regular curve called the N1B1 Smarandache curve as follows:
α3=N1+B1√2. | (2.15) |
Theorem 2.13. Let Tα3, Nα3, and Bα3 be the Frenet vectors of the N1B1 Smarandache curve. The relations among Frenet vectors are given as follows:
Tα3=−κ1T1−τ1N1+τ1B1√κ21+2τ21,Nα3=Bα3∧Tα3,Bα3=−(τ1y3+τ1y2)T1+(κ1y3+τ1y1)N1+(τ1y1−κ1y2)B1√(τ1y3+τ1y2)2+(κ1y3+τ1y1)2+(τ1y1−κ1y2)2, |
where y1=μ21τ1κ1−(μ1κ1)′√2,y2=−μ21(κ21+τ21)+(μ1τ1)′√2,y3=(μ1τ1)′−μ21τ21√2⋅
Proof. By taking the derivatives of (2.15), we have
α′3=μ1(−κ1T1−τ1N1+τ1B1)√2,α″3=y1T1+y2N1+y3B1,α‴3=(y′1−μ1y2κ1)T1+(y′2+μ1y1κ1−μ1y3τ1)N1+(y′3+μ1y2τ1)B1. | (2.16) |
Moreover, we calculate the required vector products and the norms as
α′3∧α″3=μ1√2((−(τ1y3+τ1y2)T1+(κ1y3+τ1y1)N1+(τ1y1−κ1y2)B1)),det(α′3,α″3,α‴3)=μ1√2((τ1y1−κ1y2)(y′3+μ1y2τ1)−(τ1y3+τ1y2)(y′1−μ1y2κ1)+(y′1−μ1y2κ1)(y′2+μ1y1κ1−μ1y3τ1)) | (2.17) |
and
‖α′3‖=μ1√2√κ21+2τ21,‖α′3∧α″3‖=μ1√2√(τ1y3+τ1y2)2+(κ1y3+τ1y1)2+(τ1y1−κ1y2)2. | (2.18) |
When substituting relations (2.16), (2.17), and (2.18) into (1.1), the proof is completed.
Theorem 2.14. Let κα3 and τα3 denote the curvature and the torsion of the T1B1 Smarandache curve, respectively. The following relations exist among the curvatures as
κα3=2√(τ1y3+τ1y2)2+(κ1y3+τ1y1)2+(τ1y1−κ1y2)2μ21(κ21+2τ21)√κ21+2τ21, |
τα3=√2((τ1y1−κ1y2)(y′3+μ1y2τ1)−(τ1y3+τ1y2)(y′1−μ1y2κ1)+(y′1−μ1y2κ1)(y′2+μ1y1κ1−μ1y3τ1))μ1((τ1y3+τ1y2)2+(κ1y3+τ1y1)2+(τ1y1−κ1y2)2). |
Proof. The proof is done upon substituting the above relations (2.17) and (2.18) into (1.2).
Definition 2.15. By taking the tangent and principal normal and binormal vectors of the T−pedal curve as position vectors, we define a regular curve called the T1N1B1 Smarandache curve as follows:
α4=T1+N1+B1√3. | (2.19) |
Theorem 2.16. Let Tα4, Nα4, and Bα4 be the Frenet vectors of the T1N1B1 Smarandache curve. The relations among Frenet vectors are given as follows:
Tα4=−κ1T1+(κ1−τ1)N1+τ1B1√2κ21−2κ1τ1+2τ21,Nα4=Bα4∧Tα4,Bα4=(z3κ1−z3τ1−τ1z2)T1+(τ1z1+κ1z3)N1−(κ1z1−τ1z1+κ1z2)B1√(z3κ1−z3τ1−τ1z2)2+(τ1z1+κ1z3)2+(κ1z1−τ1z1+κ1z2)2, |
where
z1=−(μ1κ1)′+μ21κ1(κ1−τ1)√3,z2=(μ1κ1−μ1τ1)′−μ21(κ21+τ21)√3,z3=(μ1τ1)′+μ21τ1(κ1−τ1)√3⋅ |
Proof. The derivatives of (2.19) are
α′4=μ1(−κ1T1+(κ1−τ1)N1+τ1B1)√3,α″4=z1T1+z2N1+z3B1,α‴4=(z′1−z2μ1κ1)T1+(z′2+z1μ1κ1−z3μ1τ1)N1+(z′3+z2μ1τ1)B1. | (2.20) |
In addition, the required vector products and the norms are calculated as
α′4∧α″4=μ1√3((z3κ1−z3τ1−τ1z2)T1+(τ1z1+κ1z3)N1−(κ1z1−τ1z1+κ1z2)B1),det(α′4,α″4,α‴4)=μ1√3((z3κ1−z3τ1−τ1z2)(z′1−z2μ1κ1)+(τ1z1+κ1z3)(z′2+z1μ1κ1−z3μ1τ1)−(κ1z1−τ1z1+κ1z2)(z′3+z2μ1τ1)), | (2.21) |
and
‖α′4‖=√6μ13√κ21−κ1τ1+τ21,‖α′4∧α″4‖=μ1√3√(z3κ1−z3τ1−τ1z2)2+(τ1z1+κ1z3)2+(κ1z1−τ1z1+κ1z2)2⋅ | (2.22) |
By substituting relations (2.20), (2.21), and (2.22) into (1.1), the proof is completed.
Theorem 2.17. Let κα4 and τα4 denote the curvature and the torsion of the T1N1B1 Smarandache curve, respectively. The following relations exist among the curvatures as
κα4=3√24√(z3κ1−z3τ1−τ1z2)2+(τ1z1+κ1z3)2+(κ1z1−τ1z1+κ1z2)2μ21(κ21−κ1τ1+τ21)√κ21−κ1τ1+τ21,τα4=√3((z3κ1−z3τ1−τ1z2)(z′1−z2μ1κ1)+(τ1z1+κ1z3)(z′2+z1μ1κ1−z3μ1τ1)−(κ1z1−τ1z1+κ1z2)(z′3+z2μτ1))μ1((z3κ1−z3τ1−τ1z2)2+(τ1z1+κ1z3)2+(κ1z1−τ1z1+κ1z2)2)⋅ |
Proof. The proof is done upon substituting the above relations (2.21) and (2.22) into (1.2).
Example 2.18. Let us consider the space curve γ:[−π,π]→E3 parameterized as γ(t)=(cosh(s),sinh(s),s). Frenet vectors and the pedal curves according to the origin O=(0,0,0) that correspond to each vector are given as follows:
T=1√2(sinh(s)cosh(s),1,1cosh(s)),N=(1cosh(s),0,−sinh(s)cosh(s)),B=1√2(−sinh(s)cosh(s),1,−1cosh(s)), |
T−Pedal⇒αT=(2cosh(s)−sinh(s)s1+cosh(2s),−s2cosh(s),scosh(2s)−sinh(2s)1+cosh(2s)),N−Pedal⇒αN=(cosh(3s)−cosh(s)+4sinh(s)s2(1+cosh(2s)),sinh(s),2s+sinh(2s)1+cosh(2s)),B−Pedal⇒αB=(cosh(3s)+3cosh(s)−2sinh(s)s2(1+cosh(2s)),sinh(2s)+s2cosh(s),scosh(2s)1+cosh(2s)). |
In Figure 3, four of the Smarandache curves of the T−pedal curve according to the origin O(0,0,0) are illustrated.
Definition 3.1. Let N be the principal normal vector of a given regular curve α in E3. The geometric locus of the perpendicular projection of points onto the normal vector from a point P∈E3 that is not on the curve is called the N−pedal curve of the curve α according to P.
Theorem 3.2. The equation of the N−pedal curve of a given regular curve α is as follows:
αN(t)=α(t)+⟨P−α(t),N(t)⟩N(t). | (3.1) |
Proof. Let P′ be a perpendicular projection point onto the principal normal vector from the point P that is not on the curve α. The perpendicular projection vector →αP′ is calculated by the following formula:
→αP′=⟨αP,(α′∧α″)∧α′⟩‖α′∧α″‖2‖α′‖2→⋅(α′∧α″)∧α′. |
Next, let αN(t) be the geometric location of the point P′. According to this, we have following relations:
→αP=→αP′+→P′P⇒→αP=⟨αP,(α′∧α″)∧α′⟩‖α′∧α″‖2‖α′‖2→⋅(α′∧α″)∧α′+→P′P⇒P′=α+⟨αP,(α′∧α″)∧α′⟩‖α′∧α″‖2‖α′‖2→⋅(α′∧α″)∧α′⇒αB=α+⟨αP,(α′∧α″)∧α′‖α′∧α″‖‖α′‖⟩⋅→(α′∧α″)∧α′‖α′∧α″‖‖α′‖. |
When the principal normal vector from the relation (1.1) is taken into consideration, the proof of the theorem is completed.
Moreover, if χ(t)=⟨P−α(t),N(t)⟩, then the relation (3.1) can be written by following:
αN(t)=α(t)+χ(t)N(t), | (3.2) |
and if the point P is specifically taken as origin, then we have χ(t)=−⟨α(t),N(t)⟩.
Theorem 3.3. Let αN be the N−pedal curve of the given curve α with unit speed, and {T2,N2,B2} denotes the Frenet vectors of the N−pedal curve of α. Then, among the Frenet vectors, the following relations exist:
T2=ω2(1−κχ)T+ω2χ′N+ω2τχB,N2=B2∧T2,B2=η2(χ′((τχ)′+τχ′)−τχ(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″))T−η2((1−κχ)((τχ)′+τχ′)+τχ((κχ)′+κχ′))N+η2((1−κχ)(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″)+χ′((κχ)′+κχ′))B, |
where
ω2=1√(1−κχ)2+χ′2+(τχ)2,η2=1((χ′((τχ)′+τχ′)−τχ(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″))2+((1−κχ)((τχ)′+τχ′)+τχ((κχ)′+κχ′))2+((1−κχ)(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″)+χ′((κχ)′+κχ′))2)12⋅ |
Proof. By taking the derivatives of (3.2), we first have
α′N=(1−κχ)T+χ′N+τχB,α″N=−((κχ)′+κχ′)T+(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″)N+((τχ)′+τχ′)B,α‴N=−((κχ)′′+(κχ′)′+κ2−χκ(κ2+τ2)+κχ″)T+((κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″)′−κ(κχ)′−τ(τχ)′−χ′(κ2+τ2))N+(κτ−χτ(κ2+τ2)+τχ″+(τχ)′′+(τχ′)′)B. | (3.3) |
Further, other necessary relations are obtained as
α′N∧α″N=(χ′((τχ)′+τχ′)−τχ(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″))T−((1−κχ)((τχ)′+τχ′)+τχ((κχ)′+κχ′))N+((1−κχ)(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″)+χ′((κχ)′+κχ′))B,det(α′N,α″N,α‴N)=−(χ′((τχ)′+τχ′)−τχ(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″))((κχ)′′+(κχ′)′+κ2+κχ″−χκ(κ2+τ2))−((1−κχ)((τχ)′+τχ′)+τχ((κχ)′+κχ′))((κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″)′−κ(κχ)′−τ(τχ)′−χ′(κ2+τ2))+((1−κχ)(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″)+χ′((κχ)′+κχ′))(κτ−χτ(κ2+τ2)+τχ″+(τχ)′′+(τχ′)′), | (3.4) |
and
‖α′N‖=√(1−κχ)2+χ′2+(τχ)2,‖α′N∧α″N‖=((χ′((τχ)′+τχ′)−τχ(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″))2+((1−κχ)((τχ)′+τχ′)+τχ((κχ)′+κχ′))2+((1−κχ)(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″)+χ′((κχ)′+κχ′))2)12⋅ | (3.5) |
By substituting equalities (3.3), (3.4), and (3.5) into the relations at (1.1), the proof is completed.
Theorem 3.4. Let αN, be the N−pedal curve of the unit speed curve α, and let κ2 and τ2 denote the curvature and torsion functions for αN, respectively. Then, the following relations exist among the curvatures:
κ2=((χ′((τχ)′+τχ′)−τχ(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″))2+((1−κχ)((τχ)′+τχ′)+τχ((κχ)′+κχ′))2+((1−κχ)(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″)+χ′((κχ)′+κχ′))2)12((1−κχ)2+χ′2+(τχ)2)√(1−κχ)2+χ′2+(τχ)2, |
τ2=−(χ′((τχ)′+τχ′)−τχ(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″))((κχ)′′+(κχ′)′+κ2+κχ″−χκ(κ2+τ2))−((1−κχ)((τχ)′+τχ′)+τχ((κχ)′+κχ′))((κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″)′−κ(κχ)′−τ(τχ)′−χ′(κ2+τ2))+((1−κχ)(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″)+χ′((κχ)′+κχ′))(κτ−χτ(κ2+τ2)+τχ″+(τχ)′′+(τχ′)′)(χ′((τχ)′+τχ′)−τχ(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″))2+((1−κχ)((τχ)′+τχ′)+τχ((κχ)′+κχ′))2+((1−κχ)(κ−χ(κ2+τ2)+χ″)+χ′((κχ)′+κχ′))2⋅ |
Proof. By substituting (3.4) and (3.5) into (1.2), the proof is completed.
Corollary 3.5. The following relations exist between the Frenet vectors of the N−pedal curve and their derivatives
T′2=μ2κ2N2,N′2=μ2(−κ2T2+τ2B2),B′3=−μ2τ2N2, | (3.6) |
where μ2=‖α′N‖.
Definition 3.6. By taking the tangent and the principal normal vectors of the N−pedal curve as position vectors, we define a regular curve called the T2N2 Smarandache curve as follows:
β1=T2+N2√2. | (3.7) |
Theorem 3.7. Let Tβ1, Nβ1, and Bβ1 be the Frenet vectors of the T2N2 Smarandache curve. The relations among Frenet vectors are given as follows:
Tβ1=−κ2T2+κ2N2+τ2B2√2κ22+τ22,Nβ1=Bβ1∧Tβ1,Bβ1=−(κ2x6+τ2x5)T2+(κ2x6+τ2x4)N2−(κ2x5+κ2x4)B2√(κ2x6+τ2x5)2+(κ2x6+τ2x4)2+(κ2x5+κ2x4)2, |
where x4=−(μ2κ2)′+μ22κ22√2,x5=(μ2κ2)′−μ22(κ22+τ22)√2,x6=(μ2τ2)′+μ22κ2τ2√2⋅
Proof. The derivatives of (3.7) up to the third degree are as given below
β1′=μ2(−κ2T2+κ2N2+τ2B2)√2,β1′′=x4T2+x5N2+x6B2,β1′′′=(x′4−μ2κ2x2)T2+(x′5+μ2x4−μ2x6)N2+(x′6+μ2τ2x5)B2. | (3.8) |
By doing the necessary algebra and by taking the required norms, we have
β1′∧β1′′=−μ2(κ2x6+τ2x5)√2T2+μ2(κ2x6+τ2x4)√2N2−μ2(κ2x5+κ2x4)√2B2,det(β1′,β1′′,β1′′′)=μ2√2((κ2x6+τ3x4)(x′5+μ2x4−μ2x6)−(κ2x6+τ2x5)(x′4−μ2κ2x5)−(κ2x5+κ2x4)(x′6+μ2τ2x5)), | (3.9) |
and
‖β1′‖=μ2√2√2κ22+τ22,‖β1′∧β1′′‖=μ2√2√(κ2x6+τ2x5)2+(κ2x6+τ2x4)2+(κ2x5+κ2x4)2⋅ | (3.10) |
Substituting the relations (3.8), (3.9), and (3.10) into (1.1) completes the proof.
Theorem 3.8. Let κβ1 and τβ1 denote the curvature and the torsion of the T2N2 Smarandache curve, respectively. The following relations exist among the curvatures as
κβ1=2√(κ2x6+τ2x5)2+(κ2x6+τ2x4)2+(κ2x5+κ2x4)2μ22(2κ22+τ22)√2κ22+τ22,τβ1=√2((κ2x6+τ3x4)(x′5+μ2x4−μ2x6)−(κ2x6+τ2x5)(x′4−μ2κ2x5)−(κ2x5+κ2x4)(x′6+μ2τ2x5))μ2((κ2x6+τ2x5)2+(κ2x6+τ2x4)2+(κ2x5+κ2x4)2)⋅ |
Proof. By using (3.9) and (3.10) to substitute into (1.2), the proof is completed.
Definition 3.9. By taking the tangent and the binormal vectors of the N−pedal curve as position vectors, we define a regular curve called the T2B2 Smarandache curve as follows:
β2=T2+B2√2. | (3.11) |
Theorem 3.10. Let Tβ2, Nβ2, and Bβ2 be the Frenet vectors of the T2B2 Smarandache curve. The relations among Frenet vectors are given as follows:
Tβ2=N2,Nβ2=−κ2T2+τ2B2√κ22+τ22,Bβ2=τ2T2+κ2B2√κ22+τ22⋅ |
Proof. By taking the derivatives of (3.11), we have
β′2=μ2(κ2−τ2)N2√2,β″2=μ22(κ2−τ2)(−κ2T2+τ2B2)√2,β‴2=−(μ22κ22−μ22κ2τ2)′T2+(μ22κ2τ2−μ22τ22)′B2+μ32(−κ32+τ32+κ22τ2−τ22κ2)N2√2. | (3.12) |
Further, by taking norms and having required vector products, we have
β′2∧β″2=μ32(κ2−τ2)2(τ2T2+κ2B2)2,det(β′2,β″2,β‴2)=μ52(κ2−τ2)3(κ2τ2′−τ2κ2′)2√2, | (3.13) |
and
‖β′2‖=μ2(κ2−τ2)√2,‖β′2∧β″2‖=μ32(κ2−τ2)2√κ22+τ222. | (3.14) |
If we substitute relations (3.12), (3.13), and (3.14) into (1.1), the proof is completed.
Theorem 3.11. Let κβ2 and τβ2 denote the curvature and the torsion of the T2B2 Smarandache curve, respectively. The following relations exist among the curvatures as
κβ2=√2κ22+2τ22(κ2−τ2),τβ2=√2(κ2τ2′−τ2κ2′)μ2(κ2−τ2)(κ22+τ22). |
Proof. The proof is clear by the substitution of (3.13) and (3.14) into (1.2).
Definition 3.12. By taking the principal normal and the binormal vectors of the N−pedal curve as position vectors, we define a regular curve called the N2B2 Smarandache curve as follows:
β3=N2+B2√2. | (3.15) |
Theorem 3.13. Let Tβ3, Nβ3, and Bβ3 be the Frenet vectors of the N2B2 Smarandache curve. The relations among Frenet vectors are given as follows:
Tβ3=−κ2T2−τ2N2+τ2B2√κ22+2τ22,Nβ3=Bβ3∧Tβ3,Bβ3=−(τ2y6+τ2y5)T2+(κ2y6+τ2y4)N2+(τ2y4−κ2y5)B2√(τ2y6+τ2y5)2+(κ2y6+τ2y4)2+(τ2y4−κ2y5)2, |
where y4=μ22τ2κ2−(μ2κ2)′√2,y5=−μ22(κ22+τ22)+(μ2τ2)′√2,y6=(μ2τ2)′−μ22τ22√2⋅
Proof. By taking the derivatives of (3.15), we have
β′3=μ2(−κ2T2−τ2N2+τ2B2)√2,β″3=y4T2+y5N2+y6B2,β‴3=(y′4−μ2y4κ2)T2+(y′5+μ2y4κ2−μ2y6τ2)N2+(y′6+μ2y5τ2)B2. | (3.16) |
Moreover, we calculate the required vector products and the norms as
β′3∧β″3=μ2√2((−(τ2y6+τ2y5)T2+(κ2y6+τ2y4)N2+(τ2y4−κ2y5)B2)),det(β′3,β″3,β‴3)=μ2√2((τ2y4−κ2y5)(y′6+μ2y5τ2)−(τ2y6+τ2y5)(y′4−μ2y5κ2)+(y′4−μ2y5κ2)(y′5+μ2y4κ2−μ2y6τ2)), | (3.17) |
and
‖β′3‖=μ2√2√κ22+2τ22,‖β′3∧β″3‖=μ2√2√(τ2y6+τ2y5)2+(κ2y6+τ2y4)2+(τ2y4−κ2y5)2. | (3.18) |
When substituting relations (3.16), (3.17), and (3.18) into (1.1), the proof is completed.
Theorem 3.14. Let κβ3 and τβ3 denote the curvature and the torsion of the T2B2 Smarandache curve, respectively. The following relations exist among the curvatures as
κβ3=2√(τ2y6+τ2y5)2+(κ2y6+τ2y4)2+(τ2y4−κ2y5)2μ22(κ22+2τ22)√κ22+2τ22,τβ3=√2((τ2y4−κ2y5)(y′6+μ2y5τ2)−(τ2y6+τ2y5)(y′4−μ2y5κ2)+(y′4−μ2y5κ2)(y′5+μ2y4κ2−μ2y6τ2))μ2((τ2y6+τ2y5)2+(κ2y6+τ2y4)2+(τ2y4−κ2y5)2)⋅ |
Proof. The proof is done upon substituting the above relations (3.17) and (3.18) into (1.2).
Definition 3.15. By taking the tangent and principal normal and binormal vectors of the N−pedal curve as position vectors, we define a regular curve called the T2N2B2 Smarandache curve as follows:
β4=T2+N2+B2√3. | (3.19) |
Theorem 3.16. Let Tβ4, Nβ4 and Bβ4 be the Frenet vectors of the T2N2B2 Smarandache curve. The relations among Frenet vectors are given as follows:
Tβ4=−κ2T2+(κ2−τ2)N2+τ2B2√2κ22−2κ2τ2+2τ22,Nβ4=Bβ4∧Tβ4,Bβ4=(z6κ2−z6τ2−τ2z5)T2+(τ2z4+κ2z6)N2−(κ2z4−τ2z4+κ2z5)B2√(z6κ2−z6τ2−τ2z5)2+(τ2z4+κ2z6)2+(κ2z4−τ2z4+κ2z5)2, |
where
z4=−(μ2κ2)′+μ22κ2(κ2−τ2)√3,z5=(μ2κ2−μ2τ2)′−μ22(κ22+τ22)√3,z6=(μ2τ2)′+μ22τ2(κ2−τ2)√3⋅ |
Proof. The derivatives of (3.19) are
β′4=μ2(−κ2T2+(κ2−τ2)N2+τ2B2)√3,β″4=z4T2+z5N2+z6B2,β‴4=(z′4−z5μ2κ2)T2+(z′5+z4μ2κ2−z6μ2τ2)N2+(z′6+z5μ2τ2)B2. | (3.20) |
In addition, the required vector products and the norms are calculated as
β′4∧β″4=μ2√3((z6κ2−z6τ2−z5τ2)T2+(τ2z4+κ2z6)N2−(κ2z4−τ2z4+κ2z5)B2),det(β′4,β″4,β‴4)=μ2√3((κ2z6−τ2z6−τ2z5)(z′4−z5μ2κ2)+(τ2z4+κ2z6)(z′5+z4μ2κ2−z6μ2τ2)−(κ2z4−τ2z4+κ2z5)(z′6+z5μ2τ2)), | (3.21) |
and
‖β′4‖=√2μ2√3√κ22−κ2τ2+τ22,‖β′4∧β″4‖=μ2√3√(z6κ2−z6τ2−z5τ2)2+(τ2z4+κ2z6)2+(κ2z4−τ2z4+κ2z5)2. | (3.22) |
By substituting relations (3.20), (3.21), and (3.22) into (1.1), the proof is completed.
Theorem 3.17. Let κβ4 and τβ4 denote the curvature and the torsion of the T2N2B2 Smarandache curve, respectively. The following relations exist among the curvatures as
κβ4=√(z6κ2−z6τ2−z5τ2)2+(τ2z4+κ2z6)2+(κ2z4−τ2z4+κ2z5)2√2μ2(κ22−κ2τ2+τ22)√κ22−κ2τ2+τ22,τβ4=√3((κ2z6−τ2z6−τ2z5)(z′4−z5μ2κ2)+(τ2z4+κ2z6)(z′5+z4μ2κ2−z6μ2τ2)−(κ2z4−τ2z4+κ2z5)(z′6+z5μ2τ2))μ2((z6κ2−z6τ2−z5τ2)2+(τ2z4+κ2z6)2+(κ2z4−τ2z4+κ2z5)2)⋅ |
Proof. The proof is done upon substituting the above relations (3.21) and (3.22) into (1.2).
By recalling Example 2.18, Smarandache curves of the N−pedal curve according to the origin O(0,0,0) are illustrated in Figure 4.
Definition 4.1. Let B be the binormal vector of a given regular curve α in E3. The geometric locus of the perpendicular projection of points onto a binormal vector from a point P∈E3 that is not on the curve is called the B−pedal curve of the curve α according to P.
Theorem 4.2. The equation of the B−pedal curve of a given regular curve α is as follows:
αB(t)=α(t)+⟨P−α(t),B(t)⟩B(t). | (4.1) |
Proof. Let P′ be a perpendicular projection point onto the principal normal vector from the point P that is not on the curve α. The perpendicular projection vector →αP′ is calculated by the following formula:
→αP′=⟨αP,α′∧α″⟩‖α′∧α″‖2→α′∧α″. |
Next, let αB(t) be the geometric location of the point P′. According to this, we have following relations:
→αP=→αP′+→P′P⇒→αP=⟨αP,α′∧α″⟩‖α′∧α″‖2→⋅α′∧α″+→P′P⇒P′=α+⟨αP,α′∧α″⟩‖α′∧α″‖2→⋅α′∧α″⇒αB=α+⟨αP,α′∧α″‖α′∧α″‖⟩⋅→α′∧α″‖α′∧α″‖⋅ |
When the principal normal vector from the relation (1.1) is taken into consideration, the proof of the theorem is completed.
Further, if ξ(t)=⟨P−α(t),B(t)⟩, then the relation (4.1) can be written by following:
αB(t)=α(t)+ξ(t)B(t), | (4.2) |
and if the point P is specifically taken as origin, then we have ξ(t)=−⟨α(t),B(t)⟩.
Theorem 4.3. Let αB be the B−pedal curve of the given curve α with unit speed, and {T3,N3,B3} denotes the Frenet vectors of the B−pedal curve of α. Then, among the Frenet vectors, the following relations exist:
T3=ω3T−ω3τN+ω3ξ′B,N3=B3∧T3,B3=−η3(τξ″−τ3+ξ′κ−ξ′τ′−ξ′2τ)T+η3(κτξ′−ξ″+τ2)N+η3(κ−τ′−ξ′τ+κτ2)B, |
where
ω3=1√1+τ2+ξ′2,η3=1√(τξ″−τ3+ξ′κ−ξ′τ′−ξ′2τ)2+(κτξ′−ξ″+τ2)2+(κ−τ′−ξ′τ+κτ2)2⋅ |
Proof. By taking the derivatives of (4.2), we first have
α′B=T−τN+ξ′B,α″B=κτT+(κ−τ′−ξ′τ)N+(ξ″−τ2)B,α‴B=((κτ)′−κ(κ−τ′−ξ′τ))T+(κ2τ−τ3+τξ″+(κ−τ′−ξ′τ)′)N+((ξ″−τ2)′+κτ−ττ′−ξ′τ2)B. | (4.3) |
Further, other necessary relations are obtained as
α′B∧α″B=−(τξ″−τ3+ξ′κ−ξ′τ′−ξ′2τ)T+(κτξ′−ξ″+τ2)N+(κ−τ′−ξ′τ+κτ2)B,det(α′B,α″B,α‴B)=(κ−τ′−ξ′τ+κτ2)((ξ″−τ2)′+κτ−ττ′−ξ′τ2)+(κτξ′−ξ″+τ2)(κ2τ−τ3+τξ″+(κ−τ′−ξ′τ)′)−(τξ″−τ3+ξ′κ−ξ′τ′−ξ′2τ)((κτ)′−κ2+τ′κ+ξ′τκ), | (4.4) |
and
‖α′B‖=√1+τ2+ξ′2,‖α′B∧α″B‖=√(τξ″−τ3+ξ′κ−ξ′τ′−ξ′2τ)2+(κτξ′−ξ″+τ2)2+(κ−τ′−ξ′τ+κτ2)2⋅ | (4.5) |
By substituting the Eqs (4.3), (4.4), and (4.5) into the relations at (1.1), the proof is completed.
Theorem 4.4. Let αB be the B−pedal curve of the unit speed curve α, and let κ3 and τ3 denote the curvature and the torsion functions for αB, respectively. Then, the following relations exist among the curvatures
κ3=√(τξ″−τ3+ξ′κ−ξ′τ′−ξ′2τ)2+(κτξ′−ξ″+τ2)2+(κ−τ′−ξ′τ+κτ2)2(1+τ2+ξ′2)√1+τ2+ξ′2, |
τ3=(κ−τ′−ξ′τ+κτ2)((ξ″−τ2)′+κτ−ττ′−ξ′τ2)+(κτξ′−ξ″+τ2)(κ2τ−τ3+τξ″+(κ−τ′−ξ′τ)′)−(τξ″−τ3+ξ′κ−ξ′τ′−ξ′2τ)((κτ)′−κ2+τ′κ+ξ′τκ)(τξ″−τ3+ξ′κ−ξ′τ′−ξ′2τ)2+(κτξ′−ξ″+τ2)2+(κ−τ′−ξ′τ+κτ2)2⋅ |
Proof. By substituting (4.4) and (4.5) into (1.2), the proof is completed.
Corollary 4.5. The following relations exist between the Frenet vectors of the B−pedal curve and their derivatives:
T′3=μ3κ3N3,N′3=μ3(−κ3T3+τ3B3),B′3=−μ3τ3N3, | (4.6) |
where μ3=‖α′B‖.
Definition 4.6. By taking the tangent and the principal normal vectors of the B−pedal curve as position vectors, we define a regular curve called the T3N3 Smarandache curve as follows:
δ1=T3+N3√2. | (4.7) |
Theorem 4.7. Let Tδ1, Nδ1, and Bδ1 be the Frenet vectors of the T3N3 Smarandache curve. The relations among Frenet vectors are given as follows:
Tδ1=−κ3T3+κ3N3+τ3B3√2κ23+τ23,Nδ1=Bδ1∧Tδ1,Bδ1=−(κ3x9+τ3x8)T3+(κ3x9+τ3x7)N3−(κ3x8+κ3x7)B3√(κ3x9+τ3x8)2+(κ3x9+τ3x7)2+(κ3x8+κ3x7)2, |
where x7=−(μ3κ3)′+μ23κ23√2,x8=(μ3κ3)′−μ23(κ23+τ23)√2,x9=(μ3τ3)′+μ23κ3τ3√2⋅
Proof. The derivatives of (4.7) up to the third degree are as given below.
δ1′=μ3(−κ3T3+κ3N3+τ3B3)√2,δ1′′=x7T3+x8N3+x9B3,δ1′′′=(x′7−μ3κ3x8)T3+(x′8+μ3x7−μ3x9)N3+(x′9+μ3τ3x8)B3. | (4.8) |
By doing the necessary algebra and by taking the required norms, we have
δ1′∧δ1′′=−1√2(μ3(κ3x9+τ3x8)T3−μ3(κ3x9+τ3x7)N3+μ3(κ3x8+κ3x7)B3),det(δ1′,δ1′′,δ1′′′)=μ3√2((κ3x9+τ3x7)(x′8+μ3x7−μ3x9)−(κ3x9+τ3x8)(x′7−μ3κ3x8)−(κ3x8+κ3x7)(x′9+μ3τ3x8)), | (4.9) |
and
‖δ1′‖=μ3√2√2κ23+τ23,‖δ1′∧δ1′′‖=μ3√2√(κ3x6+τ3x5)2+(κ3x6+τ3x4)2+(κ3x5+κ3x4)2⋅ | (4.10) |
Substituting the relations (4.8), (4.9), and (4.10) into (1.1) completes the proof.
Theorem 4.8. Let κδ1 and τδ1 denote the curvature and the torsion of the T3N3 Smarandache curve, respectively. The following relations exist among the curvatures as
κδ1=2√(κ3x9+τ3x8)2+(κ3x9+τ3x7)2+(κ3x8+κ3x7)2μ23(2κ23+τ23)√2κ23+τ23,τδ1=√2((κ3x9+τ3x7)(x′8+μ3x7−μ3x9)−(κ3x9+τ3x8)(x′7−μ3κ3x8)−(κ3x8+κ3x7)(x′9+μ3τ3x8))μ3(κ3x9+τ3x8)2+μ3(κ3x9+τ3x7)2+μ3(κ3x8+κ3x7)2⋅ |
Proof. By using (4.9) and (4.10) to substitute into (1.2), the proof is completed.
Definition 4.9. By taking the tangent and the binormal vectors of the B−pedal curve as position vectors, we define a regular curve called the T3B3 Smarandache curve as follows:
δ2=T3+B3√2. | (4.11) |
Theorem 4.10. Let Tδ2, Nδ2, and Bδ2 be the Frenet vectors of the T3B3 Smarandache curve. The relations among Frenet vectors are given as follows:
Tδ2=N3,Nδ2=−κ3T3+τ3B3√κ23+τ23,Bδ2=τ3T3+κ3B3√κ23+τ23⋅ |
Proof. By taking the derivatives of (4.11), we have
δ′2=μ3(κ3−τ3)N3√2,δ″2=μ23(κ3−τ3)(−κ3T3+τ3B3)√2,δ‴2=−(μ23κ23−μ23κ3τ3)′T3+(−μ33κ33+μ33τ33+μ33κ23τ3−μ33τ23κ3)N3+(μ23κ3τ3−μ23τ23)′B3√2⋅ | (4.12) |
Further, by taking norms and having required vector products, we have
δ′2∧δ″2=μ33(κ3−τ3)2(τ3T3+κ3B3)2,det(δ′2,δ″2,δ‴2)=μ53(κ3−τ3)3(κ3τ3′−τ3κ3′)2√2, | (4.13) |
and
‖δ′2‖=μ3(κ3−τ3)√2,‖δ′2∧δ″2‖=μ33(κ3−τ3)2√κ23+τ232⋅ | (4.14) |
If we substitute relations (4.12), (4.13), and (4.14) into (1.1), the proof is completed.
Theorem 4.11. Let κδ2 and τδ2 denote the curvature and the torsion of the T3B3 Smarandache curve, respectively. The following relations exist among the curvatures as
κδ2=√2κ23+2τ23(κ3−τ3),τδ2=√2(κ3τ3′−τ3κ3′)μ3(κ3−τ3)(κ23+τ23)⋅ |
Proof. The proof is clear by the substitution of (4.13) and (4.14) into (1.2).
Definition 4.12. By taking the principal normal and the binormal vectors of the B−pedal curve as position vectors, we define a regular curve called the N3B3 Smarandache curve as follows:
δ3=N3+B3√2. | (4.15) |
Theorem 4.13. Let Tδ3, Nδ3, and Bδ3 be the Frenet vectors of the N3B3 Smarandache curve. The relations among Frenet vectors are given as follows:
Tδ3=−κ3T3−τ3N3+τ3B3√κ23+2τ23,Nδ3=Bδ3∧Tδ3,Bδ3=−(τ3y9+τ3y8)T3+(κ3y9+τ3y7)N3+(τ3y7−κ3y8)B3√(τ3y9+τ3y8)2+(κ3y9+τ3y7)2+(τ3y7−κ3y8)2, |
where y7=μ23τ3κ3−(μ3κ3)′√2,y8=−μ23(κ23+τ23)+(μ3τ3)′√2,y9=(μ3τ3)′−μ23τ23√2⋅
Proof. By taking the derivatives of (4.15), we have
δ′3=μ3(−κ3T3−τ3N3+τ3B3)√2,δ″3=y7T3+y8N3+y9B3,δ‴3=(y′7−μ3y8κ3)T3+(y′8+μ3y7κ3−μ3y9τ3)N3+(y′9+μ3y8τ3)B3. | (4.16) |
Moreover, we calculate the required vector products and the norms as
δ′3∧δ″3=μ3√2((−(τ3y9+τ3y8)T3+(κ3y9+τ3y7)N3+(τ3y7−κ3y2)B3)),det(δ′3,δ″3,δ‴3)=μ3√2((τ3y7−κ3y8)(y′9+μ3y8τ3)−(τ3y9+τ3y8)(y′7−μ3y8κ3)+(y′7−μ3y8κ3)(y′8+μ3y7κ3−μ3y9τ3)), | (4.17) |
and
‖δ′3‖=μ3√2√κ23+2τ23,‖δ′3∧δ″3‖=μ3√2√(τ3y9+τ3y8)2+(κ3y9+τ3y7)2+(τ3y7−κ3y8)2⋅ | (4.18) |
When substituting relations (4.16), (4.17), and (4.18) into (1.1), the proof is completed.
Theorem 4.14. Let κδ3 and τδ3 denote the curvature and the torsion of the T3B3 Smarandache curve, respectively. The following relations exist among the curvatures as
κδ3=2√(τ3y9+τ3y8)2+(κ3y9+τ3y7)2+(τ3y7−κ3y8)2μ23(κ23+2τ23)√κ23+2τ21,τδ3=√2((τ3y7−κ3y8)(y′9+μ3y8τ3)−(τ3y9+τ3y8)(y′7−μ3y8κ3)+(y′7−μ3y8κ3)(y′8+μ3y7κ3−μ3y9τ3))μ3((τ3y9+τ3y8)2+(κ3y9+τ3y7)2+(τ3y7−κ3y8)2)⋅ |
Proof. The proof is done upon substituting the above relations (4.17) and (4.18) into (1.2).
Definition 4.15. By taking the tangent and principal normal and binormal vectors of the B−pedal curve as position vectors, we define a regular curve called the T3N3B3 Smarandache curve as follows:
δ4=T3+N3+B3√3. | (4.19) |
Theorem 4.16. Let Tδ4, Nδ4, and Bδ4 be the Frenet vectors of the T3N3B3 Smarandache curve. The relations among Frenet vectors are given as follows:
Tδ4=−κ3T3+(κ3−τ3)N3+τ3B3√2κ23−2κ3τ3+2τ23,Nδ4=Bδ4∧Tδ4,Bδ4=(z9κ3−z9τ3−τ3z8)T3+(τ3z7+κ3z9)N3−(κ3z7−τ3z7+κ3z8)B3√(z9κ3−z9τ3−τ3z8)2+(τ3z7+κ3z9)2+(κ3z7−τ3z7+κ3z8)2, |
where
z7=−(μ3κ3)′+μ23κ3(κ3−τ3)√3,z8=(μ3κ3−μ3τ3)′−μ23(κ23+τ23)√3,z9=(μ3τ1)′+μ23τ3(κ3−τ3)√3⋅ |
Proof. The derivatives of (4.19) are
δ′4=μ3(−κ3T3+(κ3−τ3)N3+τ3B3)√3,δ″4=z7T3+z8N3+z9B3,δ‴4=(z′7−z8μ3κ3)T3+(z′8+z7μ3κ3−z9μ3τ3)N3+(z′9+z8μ3τ3)B3. | (4.20) |
In addition, the required vector products and the norms are calculated as
δ′4∧δ″4=μ3√3((z9κ3−z9τ3−τ3z8)T3+(τ3z7+κ3z9)N3−(κ3z7−τ3z7+κ3z8)B3),det(δ′4,δ″4,δ‴4)=μ3√3((z9κ3−z9τ3−τ3z8)(z′7−z8μ3κ3)+(τ3z7+κ3z9)(z′8+z7μ3κ3−z9μ3τ3)−(κ3z7−τ3z7+κ3z8)(z′9+z8μ3τ3)), | (4.21) |
and
‖δ′4‖=√2μ3√3√κ23−κ3τ3+τ23,‖δ′4∧δ″4‖=μ3√3√(z9κ3−z9τ3−τ3z8)2+(τ3z7+κ3z9)2+(κ3z7−τ3z7+κ3z8)2⋅ | (4.22) |
By substituting relations (4.20), (4.21), and (4.22) into (1.1), the proof is completed.
Theorem 4.17. Let κδ4 and τδ4 denote the curvature and the torsion of the T3N3B3 Smarandache curve, respectively. The following relations exist among the curvatures as
κδ4=√(z9κ3−z9τ3−τ3z8)2+(τ3z7+κ3z9)2+(κ3z7−τ3z7+κ3z8)2√2μ3(κ23−κ3τ3+τ23)√κ23−κ3τ3+τ23,τδ4=√3((z9κ3−z9τ3−τ3z8)(z′7−z8μ3κ3)+(τ3z7+κ3z9)(z′8+z7μ3κ3−z9μ3τ3)−(κ3z7−τ3z7+κ3z8)(z′9+z8μ3τ3))μ3((z9κ3−z9τ3−τ3z8)2+(τ3z7+κ3z9)2+(κ3z7−τ3z7+κ3z8)2)⋅ |
Proof. The proof is done upon substituting the above relations (4.21) and (4.22) into (1.2).
By recalling Example 2.18, Smarandache curves of the B−pedal curve according to the origin O(0,0,0) are illustrated in Figure 5.
In this study, first we obtain the pedal curves drawn by the geometric locus of the perpendicular projection of points onto a tangent, principal normal, and binormal vectors of a space curve from the origin, and their Frenet vectors, curvature, and torsion functions are calculated. After these calculations, three of the pedal curves (T-pedal, N-pedal, B-pedal curves) are obtained. Second, we get the Smarandache curves defined by taking Frenet elements of each pedal curve as the position vectors. So, we obtain twelve new curves. Therefore, a set of new curves is contributed to the literature of the theory of curves. By taking a different point from the origin, numerous sequences of different new curves can be found to add more curves to the area.
Süleyman Şenyurt: Methodology, Writing–Original draft preparation, Supervision, Formal analysis, Resources; Filiz Ertem Kaya: Investigation, Conceptualization, Validation, Writing, Reviewing, Editing; Davut Canlı: Investigation, Formal analysis, Software, Validation, Visualization. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript for publication.
The authors declare they have not used Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools in the creation of this article.
The authors declare no conflict of interest in this paper.
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1. | Davut Canlı, Süleyman Şenyurt, Filiz Ertem Kaya, Luca Grilli, The Pedal Curves Generated by Alternative Frame Vectors and Their Smarandache Curves, 2024, 16, 2073-8994, 1012, 10.3390/sym16081012 | |
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