
The majority of infectious illnesses, such as HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis, and coronavirus (2019-nCov), are extremely dangerous. Due to the trial version of the vaccine and different forms of 2019-nCov like beta, gamma, delta throughout the world, still, there is no control on the transmission of coronavirus. Delay factors such as social distance, quarantine, immigration limitations, holiday extensions, hospitalizations, and isolation are being utilized as essential strategies to manage the outbreak of 2019-nCov. The effect of time delay on coronavirus disease transmission is explored using a non-linear fractional order in the Caputo sense in this paper. The existence theory of the model is investigated to ensure that it has at least one and unique solution. The Ulam-Hyres (UH) stability of the considered model is demonstrated to illustrate that the stated model's solution is stable. To determine the approximate solution of the suggested model, an efficient and reliable numerical approach (Adams-Bashforth) is utilized. Simulations are used to visualize the numerical data in order to understand the behavior of the different classes of the investigated model. The effects of time delay on dynamics of coronavirus transmission are shown through numerical simulations via MATLAB-17.
Citation: Lei Zhang, Mati Ur Rahman, Shabir Ahmad, Muhammad Bilal Riaz, Fahd Jarad. Dynamics of fractional order delay model of coronavirus disease[J]. AIMS Mathematics, 2022, 7(3): 4211-4232. doi: 10.3934/math.2022234
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The majority of infectious illnesses, such as HIV/AIDS, Hepatitis, and coronavirus (2019-nCov), are extremely dangerous. Due to the trial version of the vaccine and different forms of 2019-nCov like beta, gamma, delta throughout the world, still, there is no control on the transmission of coronavirus. Delay factors such as social distance, quarantine, immigration limitations, holiday extensions, hospitalizations, and isolation are being utilized as essential strategies to manage the outbreak of 2019-nCov. The effect of time delay on coronavirus disease transmission is explored using a non-linear fractional order in the Caputo sense in this paper. The existence theory of the model is investigated to ensure that it has at least one and unique solution. The Ulam-Hyres (UH) stability of the considered model is demonstrated to illustrate that the stated model's solution is stable. To determine the approximate solution of the suggested model, an efficient and reliable numerical approach (Adams-Bashforth) is utilized. Simulations are used to visualize the numerical data in order to understand the behavior of the different classes of the investigated model. The effects of time delay on dynamics of coronavirus transmission are shown through numerical simulations via MATLAB-17.
In the theory of quantum groups, the quantum universal enveloping algebra of three-dimensional simple Lie algebras sl2 plays an important role [1]. In 1983, the one-parameter quantized enveloping algebra Uq(sl2) was introduced by Kulish and Reshetikhin in the context of the Yang-Baxter equation for the integrable statistical models in the quantum inverse scattering method, and later its Hopf algebraic structure was discovered by Sklyanin [1,2,3]. A few years later, Drinfeld and Jimbo [4,5,6,7] independently discovered quantized enveloping algebras with higher ranks of complex simple-Lie algebras, which are quasi-triangular Hopf algebras. When q is not a root of unity, the representation theory of Uq(sl2) is very similar to that of the Lie algebra sl2, and has been basically solved. However, when q is a root of unity, the quantum group Uq(sl2) will become very complex. Many authors study representations of Uq(sl2) when q is a root of unity, and get some interesting results, see [8,9,10] for example.
In 2020, Aziziheris et al. [11] defined the classical Lie algebra sl∗2(C) based on a new associative multiplication on the 2×2 matrix, and then obtained a new type quantum group Uq(sl∗2). In [12], Xu and Chen investigated the above new type quantum group Uq(sl∗2) and classified its all Hopf PBW-deformations in which the classical Drinfeld-Jimbo quantum group Uq(sl2) was almost the unique nontrivial one. In [13], the authors defined a new type restricted quantum group ¯Uq(sl∗2) and determined its Hopf PBW-deformations ¯Uq(sl∗2,κ) in which ¯Uq(sl∗2,0)=¯Uq(sl∗2) and the classical restricted Drinfeld-Jimbo quantum group ¯Uq(sl2) was included. They showed that ¯Uq(sl∗2) was a basic Hopf algebra, then uniformly realize ¯Uq(sl∗2) and ¯Uq(sl2) via some quotients of (deformed) preprojective algebras corresponding to the Gabriel quiver of ¯Uq(sl∗2).
One of the basic problems in the theory of quantum groups is to decompose a tensor product of modules into a direct sum of indecomposable ones and hence to elucidate the structure of the corresponding fusion rule algebra. In [8], Suter decomposed the restricted quantum universal enveloping algebra Uq(sl2) in a canonical way into a direct sum of indecomposable left (or right) ideals. The indecomposable finite-dimensional Uq(sl2)-modules were classified and the tensor products of two simple modules, simple and projective modules were decomposed into indecomposable ones. Su and Yang [10] accurately characterized the structure of the representation ring of the restricted quantum group ¯Uq(sl2) when q is a primitive 2p-th (p≥2) root of unity. In [14], the authors classified all the finite dimensional indecomposable D(n) modules, and then gave the tensor product decomposition formulas between two indecomposables, at last described the representation ring by generators and relations clearly. In [15], for a class of 2n2 dimensional semisimple Hopf algebras H2n2, the authors classified all irreducible H2n2-modules, established the decomposition formulas of the tensor product of two irreducible H2n2-modules and described the Grothendieck rings r(H2n2) by generators and relations explicitly. In the present paper, we will consider the decomposition of tensor products and try to describe the projective class ring of ¯Uq(sl∗2).
The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, we recall the definition of the new type restricted quantum group ¯Uq(sl∗2) and its Hopf algebra structure, and some preliminaries used in the following sections. In Section 3, we construct the principal indecomposable projective module Pj through the primitive orthogonal idempotents of ¯Uq(sl∗2), and then study its composition series, radical series, socle series and some other related properties. In Section 4, we give the decomposition formulas of tensor products between two simple modules, two indecomposable projective modules and a simple module and an indecomposable projective module of ¯Uq(sl∗2). Furthermore, we describe the projective class ring by generators and relations explicitly.
Throughout the paper, we work over the complex field C. The notations Z and Z≥0 denote the set of all integers, and the set of all nonnegative integers respectively.
Fix an integer n≥3(n≠4). From now on, we always assume that q is a primitive n-th root of unity, and
d={n,ifnisodd,n2,ifniseven. |
First, we recall the definition of the new type restricted quantum group ¯Uq(sl∗2) and some properities as follows.
Definition 2.1. [13] The restricted quantum algebra ¯Uq(sl∗2) is an associative unital algebra generated by K,K−1, E, F and subject to the following relations
KK−1=K−1K=1,Kd=1,Ed=Fd=0,KE=q2EK,KF=q−2FK,EF=FE. |
Lemma 2.2. [13] (1) The set {FiKkEj|i,j,k∈Z,0≤i,j,k<d} is a basis of ¯Uq(sl∗2), and the dimension of ¯Uq(sl∗2) is d3.
(2) ¯Uq(sl∗2) is a Hopf algebra with coproduct Δ, counit ε and antipode S defined by
Δ(K)=K⊗K, Δ(E)=E⊗K+1⊗E, Δ(F)=F⊗1+K−1⊗F, |
ε(E)=0, ε(F)=0, ε(K)=ε(K−1)=1, |
S(E)=−EK−1, S(F)=−KF, S(K)=K−1. |
(3) ¯Uq(sl∗2) is a pointed, basic but not semisimple Hopf algebra.
Lemma 2.3. [13] Let M be a finite dimensional simple ¯Uq(sl∗2)-module. Then dim(M)=1 and the module structure on M=Cv0 can be given as follows:
Kv0=qlv0,Ev0=Fv0=0, | (2.1) |
where l∈{0,1,⋯,d−1} when n is odd, l∈{0,2,⋯,2(d−1)} when n is even.
Lemma 2.4. [13] For any i∈Zd, set ϵi=1dd−1∑l=0q−2ilKl. Obviously one has
ϵiK=q2iϵi,ϵiE=Eϵi−1,ϵiF=Fϵi+1. |
{ϵi|i∈Zd} is a complete set of primitive orthogonal idempotents of ¯Uq(sl∗2).
Using the primitive orthogonal idempotents {ϵi|i∈Zd} of ¯Uq(sl∗2), one has
¯Uq(sl∗2)=¯Uq(sl∗2)ϵ0⊕¯Uq(sl∗2)ϵ1⊕⋯⊕¯Uq(sl∗2)ϵd−1. |
Let Pj=¯Uq(sl∗2)ϵj, then {Pj|j∈Zd} is the set of the nonisomorphic principal indecomposable projective modules of ¯Uq(sl∗2). As in [8], Pj can be showed in Figure 1.
Each point represents a one-dimensional vector space generated by the vector at that point, the downward arrows indicate the left action of E, the right-oblique upward arrows indicate the left action of F. Figure 1 shows that there are d2 black dots, so the dimension of Pj is d2.
From Figure 1, it is easy to see that if we delete one point and the arrows connecting it at a time, from left to right, and from top to bottom, then we get a modules series, in which the former module modulo the next one is a 1-dimensional simple module. Therefore, we obtain the composition series of Pj as follows.
Proposition 3.1. The principal indecomposable projective module Pj(j∈Zd) has the following composition series:
Pj=Mj0⊃Mj1⊃Mj2⊃⋯⊃Mjd2=0, |
where for all i∈{0,1,…,d−1},
Mji=⨁0≤k<d1≤l<dCEkFlϵj⊕⨁i≤k<dCEkϵj,Mjd+i=⨁0≤k<d2≤l<dCEkFlϵj⊕⨁i≤k<dCEkFϵj,⋮Mjd2−d+i=⨁i≤k<dCEkFd−1ϵj. |
We can make the figures of Mj1 and Mj2 as follows (see Figures 2 and 3):
Proposition 3.2. The principal indecomposable projective module Pj has a radical series as follows:
Pj⊃rad(Pj)⊃rad2(Pj)⊃⋯⊃rad2d−1(Pj)=0, |
for all i∈{0,1,…,2d−1},
radi(Pj)=⨁0≤k,l<di≤k+lCEkFlϵj. |
Proof. Recall that rad(Pj) is exactly the intersection of all the maximal submodules of Pj, and Pj has a unique maximal submodule Mj1, so that rad(Pj)=Mj1, the figure is shown as before. rad2(Pj) is the intersection of the maximal submodules of rad(Pj), and is the submodule obtained by removing CEϵj and CFϵj and the connecting arrows, as shown in Figure 4. Proceed this way, we have rad2d−2(Pj)=CEd−1Fd−1ϵj, rad2d−1(Pj)=0.
Proposition 3.3. The principal indecomposable projective module Pj has a socle series as follows:
0=soc0(Pj)⊂soc(Pj)⊂soc2(Pj)⊂⋯⊂soc2d−1(Pj)=Pj, |
for all i∈{0,1,…,2d−1},
soci(Pj)=⨁0≤k,l<d2d−1−i≤k+lCEkFlϵj. |
Proof. Recall that for i∈Z≥0, soci(Pj) is defined inductively as follows: soc0(Pj)=0, and if soci(Pj) is already defined and p:Pj→soc(Pj) denotes the canonical epimorphism, we get soci+1(Pj)=p−1(soc(Pj/soci(Pj))). Thus, by the definition, we have soc0(Pj)=0, and as Pj has only one simple submodule CEd−1Fd−1ϵj, so soc(Pj)=CEd−1Fd−1ϵj. Inductively, we have soc2(Pj)=CEd−1Fd−1ϵj⊕CEd−1Fd−2ϵj⊕CEd−2Fd−1ϵj; and we obtain a general expression of the socle series of the module Pj as soci(Pj)=⨁0≤k,l<d2d−1−i≤k+lCEkFlϵj, where i∈{0,1,…,2d−1}.
More intuitively, we can draw the figures soc(Pj),soc2(Pj),soc3(Pj) as follows (see Figure 5):
Observe the radical series and socle series of Pj, it is easy to see that
socs(Pj)=radt(Pj), |
where s+t=2d−1,s,t∈{0,1,⋯2d−1}, and the length of the radical series(resp., the socle series) is 2d−1.
Note that dimCϵi¯Uq(sl∗2)ϵj=d, we have
Proposition 3.4. (1) The dimensional vector of Pj is
dimPj=[d,d,⋯,d]T. |
(2) The Cartan matrix of the algebra ¯Uq(sl∗2) is
(dd⋯ddd⋯d⋮⋮⋱⋮dd⋯d)∈Mn(Z). |
Let H be a finite dimensional Hopf algebra and M and N be two finite dimensional H-modules. Then M⊗N is also a H-module defined by
h⋅(m⊗n)=∑(h)h(1)⋅m⊗h(2)⋅n |
for all h∈H and m∈M,n∈N, where Δ(h)=∑(h)h(1)⊗h(2). By the Krull-Schmidt Theorem, any finite dimensional H-module can be decomposed into a direct sum of indecomposable H-modules.
Now we consider the tensor products of two irreducible ¯Uq(sl∗2)-modules.
From Lemma 2.3, we know that for ¯Uq(sl∗2) there are d non-isomorphic simple modules Si=Cvi,i∈{0,1,…,d−1}. Specifically, the module structure is:
E⋅vi=F⋅vi=0,K⋅vi=q2ivi. |
We have the following theorem:
Theorem 4.1. Si⊗Sj≅S(i+j)(modd),(0≤i,j≤d−1).
Proof. Suppose that Si and Sj are two simple modules of ¯Uq(sl∗2), with basis vi,vj respectively. Then Si⊗Sj is also a ¯Uq(sl∗2)-module, with basis vi⊗vj and the actions of the generators are as follows
E⋅(vi⊗vj)=(E⊗K+1⊗E)(vi⊗vj)=0,F⋅(vi⊗vj)=(F⊗1+K−1⊗F)(vi⊗vj)=0,K⋅(vi⊗vj)=(K⊗K)(vi⊗vj)=q2(i+j)vi⊗vj. |
Therefore Si⊗Sj≅S(i+j)(modd),(0≤i,j≤d−1).
For the tensor products of a simple module with a projective module, we have
Theorem 4.2. Si⊗Pj≅P(i+j)(modd)≅Pj⊗Si,0≤i,j≤d−1.
Proof. Note that the basis of Pj is {EkFlϵj|0≤k,l≤d−1}, let
l1=ϵj,l2=Eϵj,⋯,ld=Ed−1ϵj, |
ld+1=Fϵj,ld+2=EFϵj,⋯,l2d=Ed−1Fϵj,⋯, |
ld2−d+1=Fd−1ϵj,ld2−d+2=EFd−1ϵj,⋯,ld2=Ed−1Fd−1ϵj. |
Then the matrix of K on the basis of l1,l2,⋯,ld,ld+1,ld+2,⋯,l2d,⋯,ld2−d+1,ld2−d+2,⋯,ld2 is
A1=(A110⋯00A21⋯0⋮⋮⋱⋮00⋯Ad1)d2×d2, |
where
A11=(q2j0⋯00q2j+2⋯0⋮⋮⋱⋮00⋯q2j+2d−2)d×d, |
A21=(q2j−20⋯00q2j⋯0⋮⋮⋱⋮00⋯q2j+2d−4)d×d, |
⋮ |
Ad1=(q2j−2d+2q2j−2d+4⋱q2j)d×d. |
The matrix of E acting on this basis is
B1=(N0⋯00N⋯0⋮⋮⋱⋮00⋯N)d2×d2, |
where
N=(000⋯00100⋯00010⋯00001⋯00⋮⋮⋮⋱⋮⋮000⋯10)d×d. |
The matrix of F acting on this basis is
C1=(00⋯00I0⋯000I⋯00⋮⋮⋱⋮⋮00⋯I0)d2×d2, |
where I represents the identity matrix of order d.
Next we consider Si⊗Pj. Note that the bases of Si and Pj are vi and EkFlϵj,{0≤i,k,l≤d−1}, respectively, it is obvious that
s1=vi⊗ϵj,s2=vi⊗Eϵj,⋯,sd=vi⊗Ed−1ϵj, |
sd+1=vi⊗Fϵj,sd+2=vi⊗EFϵj,⋯,s2d=vi⊗Ed−1Fϵj, |
s2d+1=vi⊗F2ϵj,s2d+2=vi⊗EF2ϵj,⋯,s3d=vi⊗Ed−1F2ϵj, |
⋮ |
sd2−d+1=vi⊗Fd−1ϵj,sd2−d+2=vi⊗EFd−1ϵj,⋯,sd2=vi⊗Ed−1Fd−1ϵj |
is a basis of Si⊗Pj. Let
t1=vi⊗ϵj,t2=vi⊗Eϵj,⋯,td=vi⊗Ed−1ϵj, |
td+1=q−2ivi⊗Fϵj,td+2=q−2ivi⊗EFϵj,⋯,t2d=q−2ivi⊗Ed−1Fϵj, |
t2d+1=q−4ivi⊗F2ϵj,t2d+2=q−4ivi⊗EF2ϵj,⋯,t3d=q−4ivi⊗Ed−1F2ϵj, |
⋮ |
td2−d+1=q−2(d−1)ivi⊗Fd−1ϵj,td2−d+2=q−2(d−1)ivi⊗EFd−1ϵj,⋯, |
td2=q−2(d−1)ivi⊗Ed−1Fd−1ϵj. |
Then t1,t2,⋯,td2 is also a basis of Si⊗Pj, since
(t1,t2,…,td2)=(s1,s2,…,sd2)(P10⋯00P2⋯0⋮⋮⋱⋮00⋯Pd)d2×d2, |
where
P1=(10⋯001⋯0⋮⋮⋱⋮00⋯1)d×d, |
P2=(q−2i0⋯00q−2i⋯0⋮⋮⋱⋮00⋯q−2i)d×d, |
⋮ |
Pd=(q−2(d−1)i0⋯00q−2(d−1)i⋯0⋮⋮⋱⋮00⋯q−2(d−1)i)d×d, |
and the transition matrix is invertible as q is a primitive n-th root of unity. The matrix of K on the basis of t1,t2,⋯,td2 is
A2=(A120⋯00A22⋯0⋮⋮⋱⋮00⋯Ad2)d2×d2 |
where
A12=(q2i+2j0⋯00q2i+2j+2⋯0⋮⋮⋱⋮00⋯q2i+2j+2d−2)d×d, |
A22=(q2i+2j−20⋯00q2i+2j⋯0⋮⋮⋱⋮00⋯q2i+2j+2d−4)d×d, |
⋮ |
Ad2=(q2i+2j−2d+2q2i+2j−2d+4⋱q2i+2j)d×d. |
The matrix of E acting on this basis is B2=B1; the matrix of F is C2=C1. Therefore we have Si⊗Pj≅P(i+j)(modd),(0≤i,j≤d−1). Now we consider Pj⊗Si. The bases of Pj and Si are ϵj,Eϵj,⋯,Ed−1Fd−1ϵj and vi respectively. Then we can take a basis of Pj⊗Si as
r1=ϵj⊗vi,r2=q2iEϵj⊗vi,⋯,rd=q2(d−1)iEd−1ϵj⊗vi, |
rd+1=Fϵj⊗vi,rd+2=q2iEFϵj⊗vi,⋯,r2d=q2(d−1)iEd−1Fϵj⊗vi, |
⋯, |
rd2−d+1=Fd−1ϵj⊗vi,td2−d+2=q2iEFd−1ϵj⊗vi,⋯,td2=q2(d−1)iEd−1Fd−1ϵj⊗vi. |
Then the matrix of K acting on this set of basis is A3=A2; the matrix of E acting on this set of basis is B3=B1; the matrix of F acting on this set of basis is C3=C1. In summary,
Si⊗Pj≅P(i+j)(modd)≅Pj⊗Si,(0≤i,j≤d−1). |
As in [8], we can show the tensor product by the following diagram.
Example 4.3. Let n=3, d=3 and q3=1, we can make the following structure diagram of K-eigenvalue, where a number l stands for the K-eigenvalue ql.
P0S1P1P1S2P0(211000221)⊗(2)→(100222110),(100222110)⊗(1)→(211000221). |
Observe that, we have P0⊗S1≅P1, P1⊗S2≅P0. Other results can be showed similarly, such that both Pj⊗Si and Si⊗Pj are consistent with the K-eigenvalue of P(i+j)(mod3), and we have
Si⊗Pj≅P(i+j)(mod3)≅Pj⊗Si,0≤i,j≤2. |
Now we consider the tensor products of two projective ¯Uq(sl∗2)-modules. We have
Theorem 4.4. Pi⊗Pj≅(P0⊕P1⊕⋯Pd−1)d,0≤i,j≤d−1.
Proof. Let P be a projective ¯Uq(sl∗2)-module. For any ¯Uq(sl∗2)-module M, P⊗M, M⊗P are also projective modules. Suppose there is a ¯Uq(sl∗2)-module short exact sequence
0→K→M→N→0, |
then there exists a projective short exact sequence
0→K⊗P(V)→M⊗P(V)→N⊗P(V)→0, |
where P(V) is the projective cover of V, and we have
M⊗P(V)≅K⊗P(V)⊕N⊗P(V). |
Now we calculate Pi⊗Pj.
Note that Pi is the projective cover of Si, and there is an epimorphism
Pi→Si→0. |
Let Ω(Si) be the kernel of the epimorphism, and we have the short exact sequence
0→Ω(Si)→Pi→Si→0, |
then
0→Ω(Si)⊗Pj→Pi⊗Pj→Si⊗Pj→0, |
and therefore
Pi⊗Pj≅Ω(Si)⊗Pj⊕Si⊗Pj. |
We write the composition series of Pi below and find its composition factors. Let
Ni0={0},Ni1=CEd−1Fd−1ϵi,Ni2=CEd−1Fd−1ϵi+CEd−2Fd−1ϵi,⋮Nid2=Pi. |
Then
0=Ni0⊂Ni1⊂Ni2⊂⋯⊂Nid2=Pi |
is the composition series of Pi. By the short exact sequences
0→Nid2−1→Nid2→Nid2/Nid2−1→0, |
0→Nid2−2→Nid2−1→Nid2−1/Nid2−2→0, |
⋮ |
0→Ni1→Ni2→Ni2/Ni1→0, |
we have
Nid2⊗Pj≅Nid2−1⊗Pj⊕Nid2/Nid2−1⊗Pj, |
Nid2−1⊗Pj≅Nid2−2⊗Pj⊕Nid2−1/Nid2−2⊗Pj, |
⋮ |
Ni2⊗Pj≅Ni1⊗Pj⊕Ni2/Ni1⊗Pj, |
it follows that
Pi⊗Pj≅Ni1⊗Pj⊕Ni2/Ni1⊗Pj⊕Ni3/Ni2⊗Pj⊕⋯⊕Nid2/Nid2−1⊗Pj. |
Note that
KEd−1Fd−1ϵi=q2iFd−1Ed−1ϵi, |
KEd−2Fd−2ϵi=q2iFd−2Ed−2ϵi,⋯,Kϵi=q2iϵi, |
then
Ni1≅Nid+2/Nid+1≅Ni2d+3/Ni2d+2≅⋯≅Nid2/Nid2−1≅Si, |
since
KEd−2Fd−1ϵi=q2i−2Fd−1Ed−2ϵi, |
KEd−3Fd−2ϵi=q2i−2Fd−2Ed−3ϵi,⋯,KFϵi=q2i−2ϵi, |
then
Ni2/Ni1≅Nid+3/Nid+2≅Ni2d+4/Ni2d+3≅⋯≅Nid2−d+1/Nid2−d≅Si−1+d(modd), |
⋮ |
as
KFd−1ϵi=q2i+2Fd−1ϵi,KEd−1Fd−2ϵi=q2i+2Fd−2Ed−1ϵi, |
KEd−2Fd−3ϵi=q2i+2Fd−3Ed−2ϵi,⋯,KEϵi=q2i+2ϵi, |
then
Nid/Nid−1≅Nid+1/Nid≅Ni2d+2/Ni2d+1≅⋯≅Nid2−1/Nid2−2≅Si+1(modd). |
By Theorem 4.2, we have
Pi⊗Pj≅(Si⊗Pj⊕Si−1(modd)⊗Pj⊕⋯⊕Si+1(modd)⊗Pj)⊕(Si+1(modd)⊗Pj⊕Si⊗Pj⊕⋯⊕Si+2(modd)⊗Pj)⊕⋯⊕(Si−1(modd)⊗Pj⊕Si−2(modd)⊗Pj⊕⋯⊕Si⊗Pj)≅(Pi+j(modd)⊕Pi+j−1(modd)⊕⋯⊕Pi+j+1(modd))⊕(Pi+j+1(modd)⊕Pi+j(modd)⊕⋯⊕Pi+j+2(modd))⊕⋯⊕(Pi+j−1(modd)⊕Pi+j−2(modd)⊕⋯⊕Pi+j(modd))≅(P0⊕P1⊕⋯⊕Pd−1)d. |
Let H be a finite dimensional Hopf algebra. The Green ring r(H) is defined as follows. r(H) is the Abelian group generated by the isomorphism classes [M] of finite dimensional H-modules M modulo the relations [M⊕N]=[M]+[N]. The multiplication of r(H) is given by the tensor product [M][N]=[M⊗N]. The Green ring r(H) is an associative ring with identity given by [kε], the trivial 1-dimensional H-module. The projective class ring P(H) of H is the subring of r(H) generated by projective modules and simple modules (see [16]).
In this section we will describe the projective class ring P(¯Uq(sl∗2)) of the quantum group ¯Uq(sl∗2) explicitly by generators and generating relations.
Let t=[S1] be the isomorphism class of the simple module S1, and f=[P1] the isomorphism class of the indecomposable projective module P1. Then we have:
Lemma 4.5. The following statements hold in P(¯Uq(sl∗2)).
(1)td=1,
(2)tf=ft,
(3)f2=d(f+tf+t2f+⋯+td−1f).
Proof. By Theorem 4.1, we know that [S1]d=[S0]=1, hence we get (1). By Theorem 4.2, we have tf=[S1][P1]=[S1⊗P1]=[P1⊗S1]=[P1][S1]=ft, so we obtain that tf=ft. By Theorems 4.1, 4.2 and 4.4, we have
f2=[P1]2=[P1⊗P1]=[(P0⊕P1⊕⋯⊕Pd−1)d]=d(f+tf+t2f+⋯+td−1f). |
Corollary 4.6. The set {tifj∣0≤i≤d−1,0≤j≤1} is a set of Z-basis of P(¯Uq(sl∗2)).
Proof. P(¯Uq(sl∗2)) has a set of Z-basis {[Si],[Pi]∣0≤i≤d−1}, so the rank of P(¯Uq(sl∗2)) is 2d. From Lemma 3.5, it is known that [Si],[Pi] is Z-spanned by the set {tifj∣0≤i≤d−1,0≤j≤1}, so {tifj∣0≤i≤d−1,0≤j≤1} is actually a set of Z-basis of P(¯Uq(sl∗2)).
Theorem 4.7. The projective class ring P(¯Uq(sl∗2)) is isomorphic to the quotient ring Z[x,y]/I, where I is the ideal generated by the relationship
xd−1,xy−yx,y2−d(y+xy+x2y+⋯xd−1y). |
Proof. Let π:Z[x,y]→Z[x,y]/I be the natural epimorphism such that for any v∈Z[x,y], ˉv=π(v). We can straightforward to verify that the ring Z[x,y]/I is Z-spanned by the set {¯xiyj∣0≤i≤d−1,0≤j≤1}. On the other hand, because P(¯Uq(sl∗2)) is an commutative ring generated by t,f, there exists an unique ring epimorphism Φ:Z[x,y]→P(¯Uq(sl∗2)), where Φ(x)=t,Φ(y)=f. From Lemma 4.5, it is easily verified that
Φ(xd−1)=0,Φ(xy−yx)=0, |
Φ(y2−d(y+xy+x2y+⋯xd−1y))=0, |
that is Φ(I)=0, thus Φ induces a ring epimorphism
¯Φ:Z[x,y]/I→P(¯Uq(sl∗2)), |
such that for any v∈Z[x,y], ¯Φ(ˉv)=Φ(v). Then from Corollary 4.6, we can define a Z-module homomorphism
Ψ:P(¯Uq(sl∗2))→Z[x,y]/I, |
with Ψ(tifj)=¯xiyj for 0≤i≤d−1,0≤j≤1. Assume ˉv∈{¯xiyj∣0≤i≤d−1,0≤j≤1}, it is easy to check that Ψ∘¯Φ(ˉv)=ˉv. Therefore Ψ∘¯Φ=id, which means ¯Φ is a ring isomorphism.
For the new type restricted quantum group ¯Uq(sl∗2) we give the decomposition formulas of tensor products between two simple modules, two indecomposable projective modules, and a simple module and an indecomposable projective module of ¯Uq(sl∗2). Furthermore, we describe the projective class ring by generators and relations explicitly.
The authors declare they have not used Artificial Intelligence (AI) tools in the creation of this article.
This research is supported by the National Natural Science Foundations of China (Grant No. 11701019) and the Science and Technology Project of Beijing Municipal Education Commission (No. KM202110005012).
The authors declare no conflicts of interest in this paper.
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