Nanostructured metal oxide modification of a porous silicon interface for sensor applications: the question of water interaction, stability, platform diversity and sensitivity, and selectivity

James L. Gole; James L. Gole

doi:10.3934/ElectrEng.2020.1.87

AIMS Electronics and Electrical Engineering

2020, Volume 4, Issue 1: 87-113. doi: 10.3934/ElectrEng.2020.1.87

Previous Article Next Article

Review Topical Sections

Nanostructured metal oxide modification of a porous silicon interface for sensor applications: the question of water interaction, stability, platform diversity and sensitivity, and selectivity

James L. Gole ^,

School of Physics, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, 30332, USA

Received: 23 October 2019 Accepted: 14 December 2019 Published: 13 January 2020

Key parameters of a nanostructure modified porous silicon (PSi) template that can affect the development and performance of PSi-based sensors are considered. The importance of pore selection and direct in-situ nitrogen functionalization are emphasized. Metal oxide nanostructured island sites deposited to select, well defined, and reproducible nano-pore walled, micron sized p and n-type silicon pores (0.7–1.5 μ diameter) provide enhanced selectivity. The micron-sized pores facilitate rapid Fickian analyte diffusion to these highly active sites. The metal oxide nanoparticles are trapped by a thin nanopored wall covering preventing their sintering at elevated temperatures. The varying sensitivities of the highly active metal oxide nanostructured sites are well predicted within the recently developed Inverse Hard/Soft Acid/Base (IHSAB) model. Nitrogen functionalization of the nanostructure decorated surfaces provides the conversion of these PSi interfaces from hydrophilic to hydrophobic character. The decrease of water interaction provides greatly enhanced stability. Selectivity can be extended to the measurement of multiple gases using a combination of nanostructured island site determined detection matrices, p and n-type charge carrier variation, time dependent diffusion response, and pore structure influenced sensitivity. The range of variable responses is dominated by the molecular electronic structure of the nanostructured island sites as evaluated using the IHSAB concept. Pulsed mode operation can facilitate low analyte consumption and high analyte selectivity and further provide the ability to assess false positive signals using Fast Fourier Transfer techniques. The modeling of the PSi sensor response with a new Fermi energy distribution –based response isotherm is found to be superior to other isotherms. The rate of sensor response, linearity of measurement, and hysteresis of response are also considered within the framework of the decorated micron sized pore structure.
- nanostructure driven electron transduction on porous silicon,
- hydrophobic sensor interfaces,
- stability,
- sensitivity,
- selectivity,
- IHSAB concept
Citation: James L. Gole. Nanostructured metal oxide modification of a porous silicon interface for sensor applications: the question of water interaction, stability, platform diversity and sensitivity, and selectivity[J]. AIMS Electronics and Electrical Engineering, 2020, 4(1): 87-113. doi: 10.3934/ElectrEng.2020.1.87

Related Papers:

Abstract

Key parameters of a nanostructure modified porous silicon (PSi) template that can affect the development and performance of PSi-based sensors are considered. The importance of pore selection and direct in-situ nitrogen functionalization are emphasized. Metal oxide nanostructured island sites deposited to select, well defined, and reproducible nano-pore walled, micron sized p and n-type silicon pores (0.7–1.5 μ diameter) provide enhanced selectivity. The micron-sized pores facilitate rapid Fickian analyte diffusion to these highly active sites. The metal oxide nanoparticles are trapped by a thin nanopored wall covering preventing their sintering at elevated temperatures. The varying sensitivities of the highly active metal oxide nanostructured sites are well predicted within the recently developed Inverse Hard/Soft Acid/Base (IHSAB) model. Nitrogen functionalization of the nanostructure decorated surfaces provides the conversion of these PSi interfaces from hydrophilic to hydrophobic character. The decrease of water interaction provides greatly enhanced stability. Selectivity can be extended to the measurement of multiple gases using a combination of nanostructured island site determined detection matrices, p and n-type charge carrier variation, time dependent diffusion response, and pore structure influenced sensitivity. The range of variable responses is dominated by the molecular electronic structure of the nanostructured island sites as evaluated using the IHSAB concept. Pulsed mode operation can facilitate low analyte consumption and high analyte selectivity and further provide the ability to assess false positive signals using Fast Fourier Transfer techniques. The modeling of the PSi sensor response with a new Fermi energy distribution –based response isotherm is found to be superior to other isotherms. The rate of sensor response, linearity of measurement, and hysteresis of response are also considered within the framework of the decorated micron sized pore structure.

References

[1]	Korotcenkov G, Rusu E (2019) How to Improve the Performance of Porous Silicon-Based Gas and Vapour Sensors? Approaches and Achievements. Physica Status Solidi (A) 216: 190348.
[2]	Korotcenkov G (2010) Chemical Sensors: Fundamentals of Sensing Materials, Volumes 1-3. Momentum Press, New York.
[3]	Korotcenkov G (2013) Handbook of Gas Sensor Materials, Volumes 1-2. Springer, New York.
[4]	Canham L (1998) Properties of Porous Silicon. INSPEC, London.
[5]	Canham L (2014) Handbook of Porous Silicon. Springer, Zug Heidelberg, Switzerland.
[6]	Korotcenkov G (2015) Porous Silicon: From Formation to Application, Formation and Properties, Volume One. Taylor and Frances Group, CRC Press, Boca Raton.
[7]	Korotcenkov G (2015) Porous Silicon: From Formation to Application: Biomedical and Sensor Applications, Volume Two. Taylor and Frances Group, CRC Press, Boca Raton.
[8]	Feng ZC, Tsu R (1994) Porous Silicon. World Science, Singapore.
[9]	Lehmann V (2002) Electrochemistry of Silicon: Instrumentation, Science, Materials, and Applications. Wiley-VCH Verlag Gmbh, Weinham.
[10]	Sailor MJ (2012) Porous Silicon in Practice. Wiley-VCH Verlag Gmbh, Weinham.
[11]	Mares JJ, Kristofik J, Hulcius E (1995) Influence of humidity on transport in porous silicon. Thin Solid Films 255: 272-275. doi: 10.1016/0040-6090(94)05670-9
[12]	Connolly EJ, Timmer B, Pham HTM, et al. (2005) A porous SiC ammonia sensor. Sensor Actuat B-Chem 109: 44-46. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2005.03.067
[13]	Fuejes PJ, Kovacs A, Duecso Cs, et al. (2003) Porous silicon-based humidity sensor with interdigital electrodes and internal heaters. Sensor Actuat B-Chem 95: 140-144. doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(03)00423-4
[14]	Korotcenkov G, Cho BK (2010) Porous semiconductors: advanced material for gas sensor applications. Crit Rev Solid State 35: 1-37. doi: 10.1080/10408430903245369
[15]	Wang Y, Park S, Yeow JTW, et al. (2010) A capacitive humidity sensor based on ordered macroporous silicon with thin film surface coating. Sensor Actuat B-Chem 149: 136-142. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2010.06.010
[16]	Foell H, Christopherson M, Carstensen J, et al. (2002) Formation and application of porous silicon. Mater Sci Eng R 39: 93-141. doi: 10.1016/S0927-796X(02)00090-6
[17]	Gole JL, Laminack W (2010) General approach to design and modling of nanostructure modified semiconductor and nanowire interfaces for sensor and microreactor applications. In: Chemical Sensors: Simulation and Modeling, Solid State Sensors, Korotcenkov G. (Ed.) Momentum Press, New York, 87-136.
[18]	Gole JL, Fedorov AG, Hesketh P, et al. (2004) Phys Status Solidi, C 1(S2): S188-197. Wiley by permission. Copyright © 2004 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim.
[19]	Lewis SE, DeBoer JR, Gole JL (2007) Pulsed system frequency analysis for device characterization and experimental design: Application to Porous Silicon Sensors and Extension. Sensor Actuat B-Chem 122: 20-29. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2006.04.113
[20]	Laminack W, Hardy N, Baker C, et al. (2015) Approach to multi-gas sensing and modeling on nanostructure decorated porous silicon substrates. IEEE Sensors 15: 6491-6497. doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2015.2460675
[21]	Laminack W, Baker C, Gole JL (2015) Response simulation and extraction of gas concentrations for nanostructure directed nano/microporous silicon interfaces. ECS Trans 69: 141-152.
[22]	Laminack W, Gole JL (2015) Multi-gas interaction modeling on decorated semiconductor interfaces: a Fermi distribution-based isotherm and the IHSAB principle. Appl Surf Sci 359: 774-781. doi: 10.1016/j.apsusc.2015.10.110
[23]	Laminack W, Gole JL (2016) Development of a Fermi energy distribution-based adsorption isotherm on nanostructure decorated porous substrates. ECS J Solid State Sc 5: 80-87.
[24]	Baker C, Laminack W, Gole JL (2016) Selective detection of inorganics NOx, SO₂, and H₂S in the presence of volatile BTEX contaminants toluene, benzene, and xylene. Air Qual Atmos Health 9: 411-419. doi: 10.1007/s11869-015-0350-7
[25]	Baker C, Ozdemir S, Gole JL (2016) Nanostructure directed detection of acidic SO₂ and its transformation to basic character. J Electrochem Soc 163: B76-B82. doi: 10.1149/2.0561603jes
[26]	Gole JL, Goude EC, Laminack W (2012) Nanostructure driven analyte-interface electron transduction: a general approach to sensor and microreactor design. Chem Phys Chem 13: 549-561. doi: 10.1002/cphc.201100712
[27]	Ozdemir S, Osburn T, Gole JL (2011) A nanostructure modifiedporous silicon detection matrix for NO with demonstration of transient conversion of NO to NO₂. J Electrochem Soc 158: J201-J207. doi: 10.1149/1.3583368
[28]	Laminack W, Pouse N, Gole JL (2012) The dynamic interaction of NO₂ with a nanostructure modified porous silicon matrix: the competition for donor level electrons. ECS J Solid State Sc 1: Q25-Q34.
[29]	Laminack W, Gole JL (2013) Nanostructure directed chemical sensing: the IHSAB principle and the effect of nitrogen and functionalization on metal oxide decorated interface response. Nanomaterials 3: 469-485. doi: 10.3390/nano3030469
[30]	Baker C, Laminack W, Gole JL (2015) Sensitive and selective detection of H₂S and application in the presence of toluene, benzene, and xylene. Sensor Actuat B-Chem 212: 28-34. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2015.01.123
[31]	Laminack W, Baker C, Gole JL (2016) Air quality and the selective detection of ammonia in the presence of toluene, benzene, and xylene. Air Qual Atmos Health 9: 231-239. doi: 10.1007/s11869-015-0329-4
[32]	Gole JL, Ozdemir SA (2010) Nanostructure directed physisorption vs. chemisorption at semiconductor interfaces: the inverse of the hard-soft acid-base concept. ChemPhysChem 11: 2573-2581.
[33]	Laminack W, Baker C, Gole JL (2015) Sulphur-Hz(CHx)y(z=0,1) functionalized metal oxide nanostructure decorated interfaces: evidence of Lewis base and Bronsted acid sites- influence on chemical sensing. Mater Chem Phys 160: 20-31. doi: 10.1016/j.matchemphys.2015.03.070
[34]	Gole JL (2015) Increasing energy efficiency and sensitivity with simple sensor platforms. Talanta 132: 87-95. doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2014.08.038
[35]	Barsan N, Schweizer-Berberich M, Göpel W (1999) Fundamental and practical aspects in the design of nanoscaled SnO₂ gas sensors: a status report. Fresenius Journal of Analytical Chemistry 365: 287-304. doi: 10.1007/s002160051490
[36]	Comini E (2006) Metal oxide nano-crystal for gas sensing. Anal Chim Acta 568: 28-40. doi: 10.1016/j.aca.2005.10.069
[37]	LeGorea LJ, Lada RJ, Moulzolfa SC, et al. (2002) Defects and morphology of tungsten trioxide thin films. Thin Solid Films 406: 79-86. doi: 10.1016/S0040-6090(02)00047-0
[38]	Rani S, Roy SC, Bhatnagar M (2006) Effects of Fe doping on the gas sensing properties of nano-crystalline SnO₂ thin films. Sensor Actuat B-Chem 122: 204-210.
[39]	Jiménez I, Arbiol J, Dezanneau G, et al. (2003) Crystal structure, defects and gas sensor response to NO₂ and H₂S of tungsten trioxide nanopowders. Sensor Actuat B-Chem 93: 475-485. doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(03)00198-9
[40]	Moulzolf SC, Ding S, Lad RJ (2001) Stoichiometric and microstructure effects on tungsten oxide chemirestive films. Sensor Actuat B-Chem 77: 375-382. doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(01)00757-2
[41]	Ponce M, Aldao C, Castro M (2003) Influence of particle size on the conductance of SnO₂ thick films. J Eur Ceram Soc 23: 2105-2111.
[42]	Rothschild A, Komem Y (2004) The effect of grain size on the sensitivity of metal oxide gas sensors. J Appl Phys 95: 6374-6380. doi: 10.1063/1.1728314
[43]	Yoon DH, Choi GM (1997) Microstructure and CO gas sensing properties of porous ZnO produced by starch addition. Sensor Actuat B-Chem 45: 251-257. doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(97)00316-X
[44]	Morrison SR (1987) Selectivity in semiconductor gas sensors. Sensors and Actuators 12: 425-440. doi: 10.1016/0250-6874(87)80061-6
[45]	Watson J (1994) The stannic oxide gas sensor. Sensor Rev 14: 20-23.
[46]	Yamazoe N, Shimiza K, Aswal DK, et al. (2007) Overview of Gas Sensor Technology. Nova Science Publishers Inc., New York.
[47]	Ozdemir S, Gole JL (2007) The potential of porous silicon gas sensors. Curr Opin Solid St M 11: 92-100. doi: 10.1016/j.cossms.2008.06.003
[48]	Lewis SE, De Boer JR, Gole JL, et al. (2005) Sensitive, selective, and analytical improvements to a porous silicon gas sensor. Sensor Actuat B-Chem 110: 54-65. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2005.01.014
[49]	Pearson RG (1990) Hard and soft acids and bases-the evolution of a chemical concept, Coordin Chem Rev 100: 403-425.
[50]	Pearson RG (1997) Chemical Hardness. John Wiley VCH, Weinheim.
[51]	Barillaro G, Diligenti A, Nannini A, et al. (2006) Low-concentration NO₂ detection with an adsorption porous silicon FET. IEEE Sens J 6: 19-23. doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2005.859360
[52]	Salonen J, Makila E (2018) Thermally carbonized porous silicon and recent applications. Adv Mater 30: 1703819. doi: 10.1002/adma.201703819
[53]	Barotta C, Faglia G, Comini E, et al. (2001) A novel porous silicon sensor for detection of sub-ppm NO₂ concentrations. Sensor Actuat B-Chem 77: 62-66. doi: 10.1016/S0925-4005(01)00673-6
[54]	Schechter L, Ben-Chorin M, Kux A (1995) Gas sensing properties of porous silicon. Anal Chem 67: 3727-3732. doi: 10.1021/ac00116a018
[55]	Raghavan D, Gu X, Nguyen T, et al. (2001) Mapping chemically heterogeneous polymer system using selective chemical reaction and tapping mode atomic force microscopy. Macromolecular Symposia 167: 297-305. doi: 10.1002/1521-3900(200103)167:1<297::AID-MASY297>3.0.CO;2-2
[56]	Okorn-Schmidt HF (1999) Characterization of silicon surface preparation processes for advanced gate dielectrics. IBM J Res Dev 43: 351-365. doi: 10.1147/rd.433.0351
[57]	Boinovich LB, Elelyanenko AM (2008) Hydrophobic materials and coatings: principles of design, properities, and applications. Russ Chem Rev 77: 583-600. doi: 10.1070/RC2008v077n07ABEH003775
[58]	Makaryan A, Sedov IV, Mozhaev PS (2016) Current state and prospects of development of technologies for the production of superhydrophobic materials and coatings. Nanotechnologies in Russia 11: 679-695.
[59]	Ponec V, Knor Z, Cerny S (1974) Adsorption on solids. Butterworth and Co., London.
[60]	Gole JL, Stout J, Burda C, et al. (2004) Highly efficient formation of visible light tunable TiO_2-xN_x photocatalysts and their transformation at the nanoscale. J Phys Chem 108: 1230-1238. doi: 10.1021/jp030843n
[61]	Chen X, Lou Y, Samia ACS, et al. (2005) Formation of oxynitride as the photocatalytic enhancing site in nitrogen-doped titania nanocatalysts: comparison to a commercial nanopowder. Adv Funct Mater 15: 41-49. doi: 10.1002/adfm.200400184
[62]	Laminack W, Gole JL (2014) Direct in-situ nitridation of nanostructured metal oxide deposited semiconductor interfaces: tuning the response of reversibly interacting sensor sites. ChemPhysChem 15: 2473-2484. doi: 10.1002/cphc.201402108
[63]	Wang J, Mao B, Gole JL, et al. (2010) Visible-light-driven reversible and switchable hydrophilic to hydrophobic surfaces: correlation with photocatalysis. Nanoscale 2: 2257-2261. doi: 10.1039/c0nr00313a
[64]	Shi Y, He L, Guang F, et al. (2019) A review: preparation, performance, and applications of silicon oxynitride film. Micromachines 10: 552. doi: 10.3390/mi10080552
[65]	Yount J, Lenahan P (1993) Bridging nitrogen dangling bond centers and electron trapping in amorphous NH₃-nitrided and reoxidized nitride oxide films. J Non-Cryst Solids 164: 1069-1072.
[66]	Hori T, Naito Y, Iwasaki H, et al. (1986) Interface states and fixed charges in nanometer-range thin nitride oxides prepared by rapid thermal annealing. IEEE Electr Device L 7: 669-671. doi: 10.1109/EDL.1986.26514
[67]	Itakura A, Shimoda M, Kitajima M (2003) Surface stress relaxation in SiO₂ by plasma nitridation and nitrogen distribution in the film. Appl Surf Sci 216: 41-45. doi: 10.1016/S0169-4332(03)00494-X
[68]	Herzberg G (1966) Molecular Spectra and Molecular Structure. Vol. III. Electronic Spectra and Electronic Structure of Polyatomic Molecules. By O. Herzberg, D. Van Nostrand and Company, Inc.: Princeton, NJ.
[69]	Laminack W, Gole JL (2014) A varaiable response phosphine sensing matrix based on nanostructure treated p and n-type porous silicon interfaces. IEEE Sens J 14: 2731-2738. doi: 10.1109/JSEN.2014.2316117
[70]	Hamilton JD (1994) Time Series Analysis. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
[71]	Neimark AV, Ravikovitch PI, Vishnyakov A (2000) Adsorption hysteresis in nanopores. Phys Rev E 62: R1493-1496. doi: 10.1103/PhysRevE.62.R1493
[72]	Barillaro G, Bruschi P, Pieri F, et al. (2007) CMOS-compatible fabrication of porous silicon gas sensors and their readout electronics on the same chip. Phys Status Solidi A 204: 1423-1428. doi: 10.1002/pssa.200674370
[73]	Barillaro G, Strambini LM (2008) An integrated CMOS sensing chip for NO₂ detection. Sensor Actuat B-Chem 134: 585-590. doi: 10.1016/j.snb.2008.05.044
[74]	Baker C, Laminack W, Gole JL (2016) Modeling the absorption/desorption response of porous silicon sensors. J Appl Phys 119: 124506. doi: 10.1063/1.4944713

Reader Comments

Your name:*

Email:*
© 2020 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)