Search Advanced

AIMS Medical Science

2024, Volume 11, Issue 3: 265-291. doi: 10.3934/medsci.2024020
Previous Article Next Article
Research article Topical Sections

“That was terrifying!”: When 2SLGBTQQ+ individuals and rural women experiencing intimate partner violence are stalked

  • 1.
    Owerko Centre, Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, 2500 University Drive NW, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
  • 2.
    Department of Community Health Sciences, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
  • 3.
    University of Manitoba, 108 Isbister, 183 Dafoe Road, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
  • 4.
    University of Lethbridge, 4401 University Drive, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
  • 5.
    Faculty of Nursing and Cumming School of Medicine (Departments of Pediatrics, Psychiatry, and Community Health Sciences), University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
  • Received: 24 April 2024 Revised: 07 August 2024 Accepted: 26 August 2024 Published: 31 August 2024

  • Background 

    Stalking reflects a lesser-studied form of intimate partner violence (IPV; e.g., physical abuse) that may occur pre- and postseparation between two or more partners, incurring lifelong pervasive health impacts on those involved. Intersectionality theory elucidates how Two-Spirit, lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, queer, questioning, intersex, and asexual (2SLGBTQQIA+) individuals' and rural women's identities are oppressed by society, thus subjecting them to unique IPV experiences. Therefore, this study aims to explore how stalking manifests among 2SLGBTQQIA+ individuals and women living rurally with lived experiences, both of which are underrepresented groups in current stalking literature.

    Methods 

    We used secondary data from two IPV studies conducted among 2SLGBTQQ+ (no intersex or asexual participants) individuals and rural women (n = 29). We interviewed 2SLGBTQQ+ (n = 18) and rural women (n = 11) who resided in Alberta, Canada and experienced IPV via semi-structured, qualitative approaches. A thematic analysis was guided by intersectionality theory to analyze the data, applying inductive and semantic approaches.

    Findings 

    Of the 29 participants, 15 were stalked by their abusive partners and 9 reported on the negative impacts of being stalked. Rural women and 2SLGBTQQ+ individuals were mainly stalked via physical forms of stalking and cyberstalking, respectively. We describe other forms of stalking and the ineffectiveness of legal systems in those seeking support for stalking. The impacts of stalking (e.g., hypervigilance) were so profound that the feeling of being stalked persisted, which we termed phantom stalking.

    Significance 

    2SLGBTQQ+ individuals predominantly experienced stalking through technology and rural women experienced stalking in more public or physical forms, which stemmed from intersections with community and geographical factors, respectively. We posit the notion of “phantom stalking” and discuss and differentiate it from other psychiatric diagnoses. Additionally, we provide important recommendations related to legislation, education, safety, and research.

    Citation: Stefan Kurbatfinski, Kendra Nixon, Susanne Marshall, Jason Novick, Dawn McBride, Nicole Letourneau. “That was terrifying!”: When 2SLGBTQQ+ individuals and rural women experiencing intimate partner violence are stalked[J]. AIMS Medical Science, 2024, 11(3): 265-291. doi: 10.3934/medsci.2024020

    Related Papers:

  • Background 

    Stalking reflects a lesser-studied form of intimate partner violence (IPV; e.g., physical abuse) that may occur pre- and postseparation between two or more partners, incurring lifelong pervasive health impacts on those involved. Intersectionality theory elucidates how Two-Spirit, lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, queer, questioning, intersex, and asexual (2SLGBTQQIA+) individuals' and rural women's identities are oppressed by society, thus subjecting them to unique IPV experiences. Therefore, this study aims to explore how stalking manifests among 2SLGBTQQIA+ individuals and women living rurally with lived experiences, both of which are underrepresented groups in current stalking literature.

    Methods 

    We used secondary data from two IPV studies conducted among 2SLGBTQQ+ (no intersex or asexual participants) individuals and rural women (n = 29). We interviewed 2SLGBTQQ+ (n = 18) and rural women (n = 11) who resided in Alberta, Canada and experienced IPV via semi-structured, qualitative approaches. A thematic analysis was guided by intersectionality theory to analyze the data, applying inductive and semantic approaches.

    Findings 

    Of the 29 participants, 15 were stalked by their abusive partners and 9 reported on the negative impacts of being stalked. Rural women and 2SLGBTQQ+ individuals were mainly stalked via physical forms of stalking and cyberstalking, respectively. We describe other forms of stalking and the ineffectiveness of legal systems in those seeking support for stalking. The impacts of stalking (e.g., hypervigilance) were so profound that the feeling of being stalked persisted, which we termed phantom stalking.

    Significance 

    2SLGBTQQ+ individuals predominantly experienced stalking through technology and rural women experienced stalking in more public or physical forms, which stemmed from intersections with community and geographical factors, respectively. We posit the notion of “phantom stalking” and discuss and differentiate it from other psychiatric diagnoses. Additionally, we provide important recommendations related to legislation, education, safety, and research.



    加载中

    Acknowledgments


    We thank: participants for sharing their stories and experiences to further research; RESOLVE staff for their support in making this work a reality; our Albertan community agency partners for assisting in recruitment, including FearIsNotLove and Wheatland Crisis Society; Olivia Giacobbo (OG) for her assistance in conducting interviews; Keira Griggs for her support in finalizing the manuscript; Drs. Scott Patten and Jennifer Woo for their medical expertise to help describe the hypervigilance and anxiety phenomenon of phantom stalking; and the Prairieaction Foundation for funding of this research.

    Ethics approval of research and informed consent


    Prior to participating in the interviews and studies, participants provided written informed consent via signatures. Ethical approval for both studies was obtained from the University of Calgary Conjoint Health Research Ethics Board (REB20-1461_REN3, REB20-1241_REN6).

    Conflict of interest


    The authors declare no conflict of interest.

    [1] Krug EG, Mercy JA, Dahlberg LL, et al. (2002) The world report on violence and health. Lancet 360: 1083-1088. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(02)11133-0
    [2] Cotter A (2021) Intimate partner violence in Canada, 2018: an overview. Juristat: Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics : 1-23. Available from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2021001/article/00003-eng.htm.
    [3] Coleman FL (1997) Stalking behavior and the cycle of domestic violence. J Interpers Violence 12: 420-432. https://doi.org/10.1177/088626097012003007
    [4] Mechanic MB, Weaver TL, Resick PA (2000) Intimate partner violence and stalking behavior: exploration of patterns and correlates in a sample of acutely battered women. Violence Vict 15: 55-72.
    [5] Government of Canada, Criminal Code (R.S.C., 1985, c. C-46). Ontario Government of Canada, 2023. Available from: https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/c-46/section-264.html#:~:text=264%20(1)%20No%20person%20shall,or%20the%20safety%20of%20anyone
    [6] Braveman P, Gottlieb L (2014) The social determinants of health: it's time to consider the causes of the causes. Public Health Rep 129: 19-31. https://doi.org/10.1177/00333549141291s206
    [7] Bauer GR, Churchill SM, Mahendran M, et al. (2021) Intersectionality in quantitative research: a systematic review of its emergence and applications of theory and methods. SSM Popul Health 14: 100798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100798
    [8] Kattari SK, Walls NE, Speer SR (2017) Differences in experiences of discrimination in accessing social services among transgender/gender nonconforming individuals by (dis)ability. J Soc Work Disabil Rehabil 16: 116-140. https://doi.org/10.1080/1536710x.2017.1299661
    [9] Kattari SK, Walls NE, Whitfield DL, et al. (2017) Racial and ethnic differences in experiences of discrimination in accessing social services among transgender/gender-nonconforming people. J Ethn Cult Diversit 26: 217-235. https://doi.org/10.1080/15313204.2016.1242102
    [10] Statistics Canada, Section 3: Police-reported intimate partner violence in Canada, 2019. Ontario Statistics Canada, 2021. Available from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2021001/article/00001/03-eng.htm
    [11] Faller YN, Wuerch MA, Hampton MR, et al. (2021) A web of disheartenment with hope on the horizon: intimate partner violence in rural and northern communities. J Interpers Violence 36: 4058-4083. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518789141
    [12] Peek-Asa C, Wallis A, Harland K, et al. (2011) Rural disparity in domestic violence prevalence and access to resources. J Womens Health 20: 1743-1749. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2011.2891
    [13] Cao L, Wang SYK (2020) Correlates of stalking victimization in Canada: a model of social support and comorbidity. Int J Law Crime Justice 63: 100437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijlcj.2020.100437
    [14] Brownridge DA (2008) Understanding the elevated risk of partner violence against aboriginal women: a comparison of two nationally representative surveys of Canada. J Fam Viol 23: 353-367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-008-9160-0
    [15] Panchuk K, Hart C, Lewchuk DR (2022) Women+ and intimate partner violence in rural, remote and northern communities. Rural and Northern Social Work Practice: Canadian Perspectives .
    [16] Statistics Canada, Population growth in Canada's rural areas, 2016 to 2021. Ontario Statistics Canada, 2022. Available from: https://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/2021/as-sa/98-200-x/2021002/98-200-x2021002-eng.cfm
    [17] Jaffray B (2021) Intimate partner violence: experiences of sexual minority women in Canada, 2018. Available from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2021001/article/00005-eng.htm
    [18] Jaffray B (2021) Intimate partner violence: experiences of sexual minority men in Canada, 2018. Juristat . Available from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2021001/article/00004-eng.htm.
    [19] Langenderfer-Magruder L, Walls NE, Whitfield DL, et al. (2020) Stalking victimization in LGBTQ adults: a brief report. J Interpers Violence 35: 1442-1453. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517696871
    [20] McCart MR, Smith DW, Sawyer GK (2010) Help seeking among victims of crime: a review of the empirical literature. J Trauma Stress 23: 198-206. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20509
    [21] Rollè L, Giardina G, Caldarera AM, et al. (2018) When intimate partner violence meets same sex couples: a review of same sex intimate partner violence. Front Psychol 9: 1506. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01506
    [22] Daley A, Brotman S, MacDonnell JA, et al. (2020) A framework for enhancing access to equitable home care for 2SLGBTQ+ communities. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17: 7533. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17207533
    [23] Henriquez NR, Ahmad N (2021) “The message is you don't exist”: exploring lived experiences of rural lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer/questioning (LGBTQ) people utilizing health care services. SAGE Open Nurs 7. https://doi.org/10.1177/23779608211051174
    [24] Abboud S, Veldhuis C, Ballout S, et al. (2022) Sexual and gender minority health in the Middle East and North Africa region: a scoping review. Int J Nurs Stud Adv 4: 100085. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnsa.2022.100085
    [25] Javed S, Chattu VK (2021) Patriarchy at the helm of gender-based violence during COVID-19. AIMS Public Health 8: 32-35. https://doi.org/10.3934/publichealth.2021003
    [26] Kardashevskaya M, Arisman K, Novick J, et al. (2022) Responding to women who experience intimate partner violence in rural municipalities across the prairies: final report. Available from: https://www.umanitoba.ca/sites/resolve/files/2022-09/Rural%20IPV%20Final%20Report.pdf
    [27] Haller A, White S, Bresch L, et al. (2022) Examining the nature & context of intimate partner violence in 2SLGBTQ+ communities: final report. Available from: https://www.umanitoba.ca/sites/resolve/files/2022-09/2SLGBTQ%20Final%20Report.pdf
    [28] Statistics Canada, Illustrated Glossary: Rural area (RA). Ontario Statistics Canada, 2022. Available from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/92-195-x/2021001/geo/ra-rr/ra-rr-eng.htm
    [29] Woulfe JM, Goodman LA (2021) Identity abuse as a tactic of violence in LGBTQ communities: Initial validation of the identity abuse measure. J Interpers Violence 36: 2656-2676. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518760018
    [30] Chowdhury R (2023) The role of religion in domestic violence and abuse in UK muslim communities. Oxf J Law Relig 12: 178-198. https://doi.org/10.1093/ojlr/rwad008
    [31] McLemore A (2021) Stalking by way of the courts: Tennessee's abusive civil action law and why all states should adopt a similar approach to abusive Litigation in the family law context. UCLA Womens Law J 28: 333. https://doi.org/10.5070/L328155792
    [32] Statistics Canada, Census profile, 2021 census of population: profiles of a community or region: 98-316-X2021001. Ontario Statistics Canada, 2023. Available from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/en/catalogue/98-316-X2021001
    [33] Sutton D (2023) Gender-related homicide of women and girls in Canada. Available from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/85-002-x/2023001/article/00003-eng.htm
    [34] Otter.ai (2019, August). Available from: https://otter.ai./
    [35] Braun V, Clarke V (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qual Res Psychol 3: 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
    [36] Kurbatfinski S, Whitehead J, Hodge L, et al. (2023) 2SLGBTQQIA+ experiences of intimate partner abuse and help-seeking: an intersectional scoping review.
    [37] Capaldi DM, Knoble NB, Shortt JW, et al. (2012) A systematic review of risk factors for intimate partner violence. Partner Abuse 3: 231-280. https://doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.3.2.231
    [38] Gilchrist G, Potts LC, Connolly DJ, et al. (2023) Experience and perpetration of intimate partner violence and abuse by gender of respondent and their current partner before and during COVID-19 restrictions in 2020: a cross-sectional study in 13 countries. BMC Public Health 23: 316. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-14635-2
    [39] Whitton SW, Lawlace M, Dyar C, et al. (2021) Exploring mechanisms of racial disparities in intimate partner violence among sexual and gender minorities assigned female at birth. Cultur Divers Ethnic Minor Psychol 27: 602-612. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000463
    [40] Reyns BW, Scherer H (2018) Stalking victimization among college students: the role of disability within a lifestyle-routine activity framework. Crime Delinquency 64: 650-673. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128717714794
    [41] Breiding MJ, Smith SG, Basile KC, et al. (2014) Prevalence and characteristics of sexual violence, stalking, and intimate partner violence victimization—national intimate partner and sexual violence survey, United States, 2011. MMWR Surveill Summ 63: 1-18.
    [42] Reyns BW, Scherer H (2019) Disability type and risk of sexual and stalking victimization in a national sample: a lifestyle–routine activity approach. Crim Justice Behav 46: 628-647. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854818809148
    [43] Statistics Canada, Family matters: to have kids or not to have kids: that is the question! Ontario Statistics Canada, 2023. Available from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-627-m/11-627-m2023006-eng.htm
    [44] Nikupeteri A, Katz E, Laitinen M (2021) Coercive control and technology-facilitated parental stalking in children's and young people's lives. J Gen Based Violence 5: 395-412. https://doi.org/10.1332/239868021X16285243258834
    [45] Humphreys C, Diemer K, Bornemisza A, et al. (2019) More present than absent: men who use domestic violence and their fathering. Child Fam Soc Work 24: 321-329. https://doi.org/10.1111/cfs.12617
    [46] Bristow SM, Jackson D, Power T, et al. (2022) Rural mothers' feelings of isolation when caring for a child chronic health condition: a phenomenological study. J Child Health Care 26: 185-198. https://doi.org/10.1177/13674935211007324
    [47] Logan TK, Stevenson E, Evans L, et al. (2004) Rural and urban women's perceptions of barriers to health, mental health, and criminal justice services: implications for victim services. Violence Vict 19: 37-62. https://doi.org/10.1891/vivi.19.1.37.33234
    [48] Anderson KM, Renner LM, Bloom TS (2014) Rural women's strategic responses to intimate partner violence. Health Care Women Int 35: 423-441. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2013.815757
    [49] Riddell T, Ford-Gilboe M, Leipert B (2009) Strategies used by rural women to stop, avoid, or escape from intimate partner violence. Health Care Women Int 30: 134-159. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399330802523774
    [50] Bocij P, McFarlane L (2003) Cyberstalking: the technology of hate. Police J 76: 204-221. https://doi.org/10.1350/pojo.76.3.204.19442
    [51] Fraser C, Olsen E, Lee K, et al. (2010) The new age of stalking: technological implications for stalking. Juv Fam Court J 61: 39-55. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-6988.2010.01051.x
    [52] Castro Á, Barrada JR (2020) Dating apps and their sociodemographic and psychosocial correlates: a systematic review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17: 6500. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186500
    [53] Blackwell C, Birnholtz J, Abbott C (2015) Seeing and being seen: co-situation and impression formation using Grindr, a location-aware gay dating app. New Media Soc 17: 1117-1136. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814521595
    [54] Kaur P, Dhir A, Tandon A, et al. (2021) A systematic literature review on cyberstalking. An analysis of past achievements and future promises. Technol Forecast Soc 163: 120426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2020.120426
    [55] Ogbe E, Harmon S, Van den Bergh R, et al. (2020) A systematic review of intimate partner violence interventions focused on improving social support and/ mental health outcomes of survivors. PLoS One 15: e0235177. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235177
    [56] Benitez CT, McNiel DE, Binder RL (2010) Do protection orders protect?. J Am Acad Psychiatry Law 38: 376-385.
    [57] Holt VL, Kernic MA, Wolf ME, et al. (2003) Do protection orders affect the likelihood of future partner violence and injury?. Am J Prev Med 24: 16-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(02)00576-7
    [58] Holt VL, Kernic MA, Lumley T, et al. (2002) Civil protection orders and risk of subsequent police-reported violence. JAMA 288: 589-594. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.288.5.589
    [59] McFarlane J, Malecha A, Gist J, et al. (2004) Protection orders and intimate partner violence: an 18-month study of 150 black, Hispanic, and white women. Am J Public Health 94: 613-618. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.94.4.613
    [60] Logan TK, Walker R (2010) Civil protective order effectiveness: justice or just a piece of paper?. Violence Vict 25: 332-348. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.25.3.332
    [61] Carlson MJ, Harris SD, Holden GW (1999) Protective orders and domestic violence: risk factors for re-abuse. J Fam Violence 14: 205-226. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022032904116
    [62] Koshan J (2023) Preventive justice? Domestic violence protection orders and their intersections with family and other laws and legal systems. Can J Fam L 35: 241. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4372318
    [63] American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). 5 Eds., Washington: American Psychiatric Association. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
    [64] Zimmermann K, Carnahan LR, Paulsey E, et al. (2016) Health care eligibility and availability and health care reform: Are we addressing rural women's barriers to accessing care?. J Health Care Poor Underserved 27: 204-219. https://doi.org/10.1353/hpu.2016.0177
    [65] Sankar P, Mora S, Merz JF, et al. (2003) Patient perspectives of medical confidentiality: a review of the literature. J Gen Intern Med 18: 659-669. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1525-1497.2003.20823.x
    [66] Sabri B, Tharmarajah S, Njie-Carr VPS, et al. (2022) Safety planning with marginalized survivors of intimate partner violence: challenges of conducting safety planning intervention research with Marginalized women. Trauma Violence Abuse 23: 1728-1751. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380211013136
    [67] Natarajan M (2016) Police response to domestic violence: a case study of TecSOS mobile phone use in the London metropolitan police service. Polic J Policy Pract 10: 378-390. https://doi.org/10.1093/police/paw022
    [68] Hearn J, Hall M, Lewis R, et al. (2023) The spread of digital intimate partner violence: ethical challenges for business, workplaces, employers and management. J Bus Ethics 187: 695-711. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-023-05463-4
    [69] Waite S, Pajovic V, Denier N (2010) Lesbian, gay and bisexual earnings in the Canadian labor market: new evidence from the Canadian community health survey. Res Soc Strat Mobil 67: 100484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2020.100484
    [70] Coy M, Scott E, Tweedale R, et al. (2015) “It's like going through the abuse again”: domestic violence and women and children's (un) safety in private law contact proceedings. J Soc Welf Fam Law 37: 53-69. https://doi.org/10.1080/09649069.2015.1004863
  • medsci-11-03-020-s001.pdf
  • Reader Comments
  • © 2024 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)
通讯作者: 陈斌, bchen63@163.com
  • 1. 

    沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院 沈阳 110142

  1. 本站搜索
  2. 百度学术搜索
  3. 万方数据库搜索
  4. CNKI搜索
AIMS Medical Science
0.4

Metrics

Article views(425) PDF downloads(26) Cited by(0)

Preview PDF
Download XML
Export Citation
Article outline

Figures and Tables

Figures(1)  /  Tables(2)

Other Articles By Authors

Related pages

Tools

/

DownLoad:  Full-Size Img  PowerPoint
Return
Return

Catalog