Mast cells (MC) are central effectors of allergic disease and distinct subsets with varying amounts of tryptase, chymase, and carboxypeptidase A3, and cathepsin G is distributed throughout the body. Their involvement in a diverse range of non-allergic illnesses mediated by a complex range of preformed and newly synthesized mediators is now increasingly recognized. The latter especially include conditions under the umbrella term of mast cell activation syndrome. In allergic disease, much has been written about the mechanisms by which the early and rapidly acting mediators produce both localized and systemic allergic symptoms. The role of chymase is presently underappreciated but there is increased awareness that MCs contain significant amounts of preformed TNF alpha and synthesize and releases a wide range of inflammatory cytokines such as interleukins (IL) 1β, IL6, IL31, and IL33. These can aggravate itching and perpetuate inflammation and likely contribute to the late constitutional symptoms seen in allergic reactions. Importantly, their involvement helps to clarify the role of MCs in stress and non-parasitic infections. Presently, unexplained is the increasing incidence of significant acute allergic reactions within a relatively short time frame. In this context, there is increasing interest in the environmental, menstrual, endocrine, circadian, and psychological factors that influence MC activation as well as the endocrine pathways involving the renin angiotensin system that oppose hypotension. In non-allergic diseases with normal numbers of MCs, reduced thresholds for activation may be produced by various combinations of life and dietary factors. Diagnosing these conditions is difficult but may be helped by urinary analysis of prostaglandin metabolites. The investigation and management of mastocytosis with and without mutations of c-kit is also relevant to allergic disease and the new medications used may also be helpful in idiopathic anaphylaxis. This knowledge may open a new chapter in human diseases and mast cell regulation.
Citation: Amolak S Bansal, Alex Nicholas, Nazira Sumar, Veronica Varney. Mast cells, mediators, and symptomatic activation[J]. AIMS Allergy and Immunology, 2024, 8(1): 34-55. doi: 10.3934/Allergy.2024004
Mast cells (MC) are central effectors of allergic disease and distinct subsets with varying amounts of tryptase, chymase, and carboxypeptidase A3, and cathepsin G is distributed throughout the body. Their involvement in a diverse range of non-allergic illnesses mediated by a complex range of preformed and newly synthesized mediators is now increasingly recognized. The latter especially include conditions under the umbrella term of mast cell activation syndrome. In allergic disease, much has been written about the mechanisms by which the early and rapidly acting mediators produce both localized and systemic allergic symptoms. The role of chymase is presently underappreciated but there is increased awareness that MCs contain significant amounts of preformed TNF alpha and synthesize and releases a wide range of inflammatory cytokines such as interleukins (IL) 1β, IL6, IL31, and IL33. These can aggravate itching and perpetuate inflammation and likely contribute to the late constitutional symptoms seen in allergic reactions. Importantly, their involvement helps to clarify the role of MCs in stress and non-parasitic infections. Presently, unexplained is the increasing incidence of significant acute allergic reactions within a relatively short time frame. In this context, there is increasing interest in the environmental, menstrual, endocrine, circadian, and psychological factors that influence MC activation as well as the endocrine pathways involving the renin angiotensin system that oppose hypotension. In non-allergic diseases with normal numbers of MCs, reduced thresholds for activation may be produced by various combinations of life and dietary factors. Diagnosing these conditions is difficult but may be helped by urinary analysis of prostaglandin metabolites. The investigation and management of mastocytosis with and without mutations of c-kit is also relevant to allergic disease and the new medications used may also be helpful in idiopathic anaphylaxis. This knowledge may open a new chapter in human diseases and mast cell regulation.
angiotensin converting enzyme
renin angiotensin system
angiotensin-2
angiotensin-1
platelet activating factor
endothelial nitric oxide
angiotensin-2 receptor
bradykinin
blood pressure
complement protein C5a
complement protein C3a
messenger RNA
Immunoglobulin E
| [1] | Bjornsson HM, Graffeo CS (2010) Improving diagnostic accuracy of anaphylaxis in acute care setting. West J Emerg Med 11: 456-461. |
| [2] | Tejeclor A, Lonson MA, Moromoro M, et al. (2014) Epidemiology of anaphylaxis. Clin Exp Allergy 45: 1027-1039. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12418 |
| [3] |
Mullins RJ, Wainstein BK, Barnes EH, et al. (2016) Increases in anaphylaxis fatalities in Australia from 1997–2013. Clin Exp Allergy 46: 1099-1110. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12748 
|
| [4] |
Sheikh A, Alves B (2001) Age, sex, geographical and socio-economic variations in admissions for anaphylaxis: analysis of four years of English hospital data. Clin Exp All 31: 1571-1576. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2222.2001.01203.x
|
| [5] |
Braganza SC, Acworth JP, McKinnon DRL, et al. (2006) Paediatric emergency department anaphylaxis: different patterns from Adults. Arch Dis Child 91: 159-163. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2004.069914
|
| [6] |
Macdougall CF, Cart AJ, Clover AF (2002) How dangerous is food allergy in childhood? The incidence of severe and fatal allergic reactions across UK and Ireland. Arch Dis Child 86: 236-237. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.86.4.236
|
| [7] |
Vetander M, Protudjer JLP, Liija G, et al. (2016) Anaphylaxis to foods in a population of adolescents: incidence, characteristics and associated risks. Clin Exp Allergy 46: 1575-1587. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12842
|
| [8] |
Terr AI (1985) Anaphylaxis. Clin Rev Allergy 3: 3-23. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02993040
|
| [9] |
Delage C, Irey NS (1972) Anaphylactic deaths: a Clinicopathologic study of 43 cases. J Forensic Sci 17: 525-540. https://doi.org/10.1520/JFS10141J
|
| [10] |
Greenberger PA, Rotskoff BD, Lifschultz B (2007) Fatal anaphylaxis: postmortem findings and associated comorbid diseases. Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol 98: 252-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1081-1206(10)60714-4
|
| [11] |
Smith PK, Hourihane JO, Lieberman P (2005) Risk multipliers for severe food anaphylaxis. World Allergy Organ J 8: 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40413-015-0081-0
|
| [12] |
Pumphrey R, Stanworth SJ (1996) The clinical spectrum of anaphylaxis in north-west England. Clin Exp All 26: 1364-1370. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.1996.tb00537.x
|
| [13] |
Pumphrey RS (2000) Lessons for management of anaphylaxis from a study of fatal reactions. Clin Exp Allergy 30: 1144-1150. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2222.2000.00864.x
|
| [14] |
Reber LL, Hernandez JD, Galli SJ (2007) The pathophysiology of anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 140: 335-348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2017.06.003
|
| [15] |
Gupta R, Sheikh A, Strachan DP (2007) Time trends in allergic disorders in the UK. Thorax 62: 91-96. https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.2004.038844
|
| [16] |
Berlin MC (2015) Pathogenesis of IgE mediated food allergy. Clin Exp Allergy 45: 1483-1496. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12598
|
| [17] |
Harper NJN, Cook TM, Garcez T, et al. (2018) Anaesthesia, surgery and life-threatening allergic reactions: Management and outcomes in the 6th National Audit Project (NAP6). Br J Anaesth 121: 159-171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bja.2018.04.015
|
| [18] |
Sato T, Morishita S, Horie T, et al. (2019) Involvement of premacular mast cells in the pathogenesis of macular diseases. PLoS One 14: e0211438. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0211438
|
| [19] |
Lauritano D, Mastrangelo F, D'Ovidio C, et al. (2023) Activation of mast cells by neuropeptides: The role of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Int J Mol Sci 24: 4811. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms24054811
|
| [20] |
Nishino S, Sakai N, Nishino N, et al. (2022) Brain mast cells in sleep and behavioral regulation. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 59: 427-446. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2022_359
|
| [21] |
Theoharides TC, Valent P, Akin C (2015) Mast cells, mastocytosis, and related disorders. N Engl J Med 373: 163-172. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1409760
|
| [22] |
Leguit RJ, Wang SA, George TI, et al. (2023) The international consensus classification of mastocytosis and related entities. Virchows Arch 482: 99-112. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00428-022-03423-3
|
| [23] |
Gülen T, Akin C, Bonadonna P, et al. (2021) Selecting the right criteria and proper classification to diagnose mast cell activation syndromes: A critical review. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 9: 3918-3928. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2021.06.011
|
| [24] |
Valent P, Hartmann K, Bonadonna P, et al. (2022) Mast cell activation syndromes: Collegium internationale allergologicum update. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 183: 693-705. https://doi.org/10.1159/000524532
|
| [25] |
Hellman L, Akula S, Fu Z, et al. (2022) Mast cell and basophil granule proteases - In Vivo targets and function. Front Immunol 13: 918305. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.918305
|
| [26] |
Bian G, Gu Y, Xu C, et al. (2021) Early development and functional properties of tryptase/chymase double-positive mast cells from human pluripotent stem cells. J Mol Cell Biol 13: 104-115. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmcb/mjaa059
|
| [27] |
Komi DEA, Rambasek T, Wöhrl S (2018) Mastocytosis: From a molecular point of view. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol 54: 397-411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12016-017-8619-2
|
| [28] |
Irani AA, Schechter NM, Craig SS, et al. (1986) Two types of human mast cells that have distinct neutral protease compositions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 83: 4464-4468. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.83.12.4464
|
| [29] |
Siddhuraj P, Clausson CM, Sanden C, et al. (2021) Lung mast cells have a high constitutive expression of carboxypeptidase A3 mRNA that is independent from granule-stored CPA3. Cells 10: 309. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10020309
|
| [30] |
Donelan J, Boucher W, Papadopoulou N, et al. (2006) Corticotropin-releasing hormone induces skin vascular permeability through a neurotensin-dependent process. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 103: 7759-7764. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0602210103
|
| [31] |
Mustain WC, Rychahou PG, Evers BM (2011) The role of neurotensin in physiologic and pathologic processes. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes 18: 75-82. https://doi.org/10.1097/MED.0b013e3283419052
|
| [32] |
Gaudenzio N, Sibilano R, Marichal T, et al. (2016) Different activation signals induce distinct mast cell degranulation strategies. J Clin Invest 126: 3981-3998. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI85538
|
| [33] |
Cianferoni A (2021) Non-IgE-mediated anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 147: 1123-1131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2021.02.012
|
| [34] |
Poto R, Quinti I, Marone G, et al. (2022) IgG autoantibodies against IgE from atopic dermatitis can induce the release of cytokines and proinflammatory mediators from basophils and mast cells. Front Immunol 13: 880412. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.880412
|
| [35] |
Wernersson S, Pejler G (2014) Mast cell secretory granules: armed for battle. Nat Rev Immunol 14: 478-494. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri3690
|
| [36] |
Lee J, Vadas P (2011) Anaphylaxis: mechanisms and management. Clin Exp Allergy 41: 923-938. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03779.x
|
| [37] |
Lundequist A, Pejler G (2011) Biological implications of preformed mast cell mediators. Cell Mol Life Sci 68: 965-975. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-010-0587-0
|
| [38] |
Theoharides TC, Kempuraj D, Tagen M, et al. (2007) Differential release of mast cell mediators and the pathogenesis of inflammation. Immunol Rev 217: 65-78. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-065X.2007.00519.x
|
| [39] |
Morita H, Nakae S, Saito H, et al. (2017) IL-33 in clinical practice: Size matters?. J Allergy Clin Immunol 140: 381-383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2017.03.042
|
| [40] |
Zhang B, Weng Z, Sismanopoulos N, et al. (2012) Mitochondria distinguish granule-stored from de novo synthesized tumor necrosis factor secretion in human mast cells. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 159: 23-32. https://doi.org/10.1159/000335178
|
| [41] |
Nakao A, Nakamura Y, Shibata S (2015) The circadian clock functions as a potent regulator of allergic reaction. Allergy 70: 467-473. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.12596
|
| [42] |
Askenase PW (2005) Mast cells and the mediation of T-cell recruitment in arthritis. N Engl J Med 349: 1294. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200309253491319
|
| [43] |
Gordon JR, Galli SJ (1990) Mast cells as a source of both preformed and immunologically inducible TNF-α/cachectin. Nature 346: 274-276. https://doi.org/10.1038/346274a0
|
| [44] |
Zhang B, Alysandratos KD, Angelidou A, et al. (2011) Human mast cell degranulation and preformed TNF secretion require mitochondrial translocation to exocytosis sites: relevance to atopic dermatitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 127: 1522-1531.e8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2011.02.005
|
| [45] |
Panula P (2021) Histamine receptors, agonists, and antagonists in health and disease. Handb Clin Neurol 180: 377-387. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-820107-7.00023-9
|
| [46] |
Ahmad S, Varagic J, Groban L, et al. (2014) Angiotensin (1–12); A chymase mediated cellular angiotensin II substrate. Curr Hypertens Res 16: 429-437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11906-014-0429-9
|
| [47] |
He S, Walls AF (1998) The induction of a prolonged increase in microvascular permeability by human mast cell chymase. Eur J Pharmacol 352: 91-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2999(98)00343-4
|
| [48] |
Wong CK, Ng SSM, Lun SWM, et al. (2009) Signaling mechanisms regulating the activation of human eosinophils by mast-cell-derived Chymase; implications for mast-cell-eosinophil interaction in allergic inflammation. Immunology 126: 579-587. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2567.2008.02916.x
|
| [49] |
Caughey GH (2007) Mast cell tryptases and chymases in inflammation and host defense. Immunol Rev 217: 141-154. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-065X.2007.00509.x
|
| [50] |
Saarinen JV, Harvima RJ, Naukkarinen A, et al. (2001) The release of histamine is associated with the inactivation of mast cell chymase during immediate allergic wheal reactions in the skin. Clin Exp Allergy 31: 593-601. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2222.2001.01030.x
|
| [51] |
Guilarte M, Sala-Cunill A, Luengo O, et al. (2017) The mast cell contact and coagulation system connection in anaphylaxis. Front Immunol 8: 846. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2017.00846
|
| [52] |
Proud D, Togias A, Nacleiro RM, et al. (1983) Kinins are generated in vivo following airway challenge of allergic individuals with allergen. J Clin Invest 72: 1678-1685. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI111127
|
| [53] |
Stone SF, Brown SG (2012) Mediators released during human anaphylaxis. Curr Allergy Asthma Rev 12: 33-41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11882-011-0231-6
|
| [54] |
Caughey GH (2016) Mast cell proteases as pharmacological targets. Eur J Pharmacol 778: 44-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.04.045
|
| [55] | Imamura T, Dubin A, Moore W, et al. (1996) Induction of vascular permeability enhancement by human tryptase: dependence on activation of prekallikrein and direct release of bradykinin from kininogens. Lab Invest 74: 861-870. |
| [56] |
Vadas P, Gold M, Perelman B, et al. (2008) Platelet-activating factor, PAF acetylhydrolase, and severe anaphylaxis. N Engl J Med 358: 28-35. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa070030
|
| [57] |
Fukuda Y, Kawashima H, Saito K, et al. (2000) Effect of human plasma-type platelet activating factor acetylhydrolase in two anaphylactic shock models. Eur J Pharmacol 390: 203-207. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2999(99)00920-6
|
| [58] |
Arimura A, Harada M (1991) Differential effect of a PAF antagonist CV- 3988 on active and passive anaphylactic shock in various mouse strains. Lipids 26: 1386-1390. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02536572
|
| [59] |
Gill P, Jindal NL, Jagdis A, et al. (2015) Platelets in the immune response; Revisiting platelet activating factor in anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 135: 1424-1432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2015.04.019
|
| [60] |
Kajiwara N, Sasaki T, Braddind P, et al. (2010) Activation of human mast cells through the platelet-activating factor receptor. J Allergy Clin Immunology 125: 1137-1145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2010.01.056
|
| [61] |
Dao VT, Medini S, Bisha M, et al. (2016) Nitric oxide up-regulates endothelial expression of angiotensin II type 2 receptors. Biochem Pharmacol 112: 24-36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcp.2016.05.011
|
| [62] |
Mombouli JV, Vanhoutte PM (1992) Heterogeneity of endothelium-dependent vasodilator effects of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors: role of bradykinin generation during ACE inhibition. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 20: S74-S82. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005344-199200209-00014
|
| [63] |
Lowenstein CJ, Michel T (2006) What's in a name? eNOS and anaphylactic shock. J Clin Invest 116: 2075-2078. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI29406
|
| [64] | Kuehn HS, Radinger M, Gilfillan AM (2010) Measuring mast cell mediator release. Curr Protoc Immunol 2 Chapter 7: Unit 7.38. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471142735.im0738s91 |
| [65] |
Nguyen SMT, Rupprecht CP, Haque A, et al. (2021) Mechanisms governing anaphylaxis: inflammatory cells, mediators, endothelial gap junctions and beyond. Int J Mol Sci 22: 7785. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms22157785
|
| [66] |
Dileepan KN, Raveendran VV, Sharma R (2023) Mast cell-mediated immune regulation in health and disease. Front Med (Lausanne) 10: 1213320. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2023.1213320
|
| [67] |
Mukai K, Tsai M, Saito, et al. (2018) Mast cells as sources of cytokines, chemokines, and growth factors. Immunol Rev 282: 121-150. https://doi.org/10.1111/imr.12634
|
| [68] |
Noordenbos T, Blijdorp I, Chen S, et al. (2016) D. Human mast cells capture, store, and release bioactive, exogenous IL-17A. J Leukoc Biol 100: 453-462. https://doi.org/10.1189/jlb.3HI1215-542R
|
| [69] |
Moulin D, Donzé O, Talabot-Ayer D, et al. (2007) Interleukin (IL)-33 induces the release of pro-inflammatory mediators by mast cells. Cytokine 40: 216-225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cyto.2007.09.013
|
| [70] |
Saluja R, Ketelaar ME, Hawro T, et al. (2015) The role of the IL-33/IL-1RL1 axis in mast cell and basophil activation in allergic disorders. Mol Immunol 63: 80-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molimm.2014.06.018
|
| [71] |
Silver MR, Margulis A, Wood N, et al. (2010) IL-33 synergizes with IgE-dependent and IgE-independent agents to promote mast cell and basophil activation. Inflamm Res 59: 207-218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00011-009-0088-5
|
| [72] |
Kandere-Grzybowska K, Letourneau R, Kempuraj D, et al. (2003) IL-1 induces vesicular secretion of IL-6 without degranulation from human mast cells. J Immunol 171: 4830-4836. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.171.9.4830
|
| [73] |
Theoharides TC, Zhang B, Kempuraj D, et al. (2010) IL-33 augments substance P-induced VEGF secretion from human mast cells and is increased in psoriatic skin. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107: 4448-4453. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1000803107
|
| [74] |
Petra AI, Tsilioni I, Taracanova A, et al. (2018) Interleukin 33 and interleukin 4 regulate interleukin 31 gene expression and secretion from human laboratory of allergic diseases 2 mast cells stimulated by substance P and/or immunoglobulin E. Allergy Asthma Proc 39: 153-160. https://doi.org/10.2500/aap.2018.38.4105
|
| [75] |
Salamon P, Shoham NG, Gavrieli R, et al. (2005) Human mast cells release Interleukin-8 and induce neutrophil chemotaxis on contact with activated T cells. Allergy 60: 1316-1319. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1398-9995.2005.00886.x
|
| [76] |
Sumpter TL, Ho CH, Pleet AR, et al. (2015) Autocrine hemokinin-1 functions as an endogenous adjuvant for IgE-mediated mast cell inflammatory responses. J Allergy Clin Immunol 135: 1019-1030.e8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2014.07.036
|
| [77] | Conti P, Caraffa Al, Kritas SK, et al. (2017) Mast cell, pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory: Jekyll and Hyde, the story continues. J Biol Regul Homeost Agents 31: 263-267. |
| [78] |
Bruhns P, Chollet-Martin S (2021) Mechanisms of human drug-induced anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 147: 1133-1142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2021.02.013
|
| [79] |
Zhang B, Li Q, Shi C, et al. (2018) Drug-induced pseudoallergy: A review of the causes and mechanisms. Pharmacology 101: 104-110. https://doi.org/10.1159/000479878
|
| [80] |
Yu Y, Blokhuis BR, Garssen J, et al. (2016) Non-IgE mediated mast cell activation. Eur J Pharmacol 778: 33-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2015.07.017
|
| [81] |
Cao J, Papadopoulou N, Kempuraj D, et al. (2005) Human mast cells express corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) receptors and CRH leads to selective secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor. J Immunol 174: 7665-7675. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.174.12.7665
|
| [82] |
Caceda R, Kinkead B, Nemeroff CB (2006) Neurotensin: role in psychiatric and neurological diseases. Peptides 27: 2385-2404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.peptides.2006.04.024
|
| [83] |
Lazarus LH, Perrin MH, Brown MR, et al. (1977) Verification of both the sequence and conformational specificity of neurotensin in binding to mast cells. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 76: 1079-1085. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-291X(77)90966-4
|
| [84] |
Theoharides TC (2017) Neuroendocrinology of mast cells: challenges and controversies. Exp Dermatol 26: 751-759. https://doi.org/10.1111/exd.13288
|
| [85] |
Theoharides TC, Cochrane DE (2004) Critical role of mast cells in inflammatory diseases and the effect of acute stress. J Neuroimmunol 146: 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroim.2003.10.041
|
| [86] |
McNeil BD, Pundir P, Meeker S, et al. (2015) Identification of a mast-cell-specific receptor crucial for pseudo-allergic drug reactions. Nature 519: 237-241. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14022
|
| [87] |
Kolkhir P, Elieh-Ali-Komi D, Metz M, et al. (2022) Understanding human mast cells: lesson from therapies for allergic and non-allergic diseases. Nat Rev Immunol 22: 294-308. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-021-00622-y
|
| [88] |
Yoo HS, Yang EM, Kim MA, et al. (2014) A case of codeine induced anaphylaxis via oral route. Allergy Asthma Immunol Res 6: 95-97. https://doi.org/10.4168/aair.2014.6.1.95
|
| [89] |
Casale TB, Bowman S, Kaliner M (1984) Induction of human cutaneous mast cell degranulation by opiates and endogenous opioid peptides: evidence for opiate and nonopiate receptor participation. J Allergy Clin Immunol 73: 775-781. https://doi.org/10.1016/0091-6749(84)90447-0
|
| [90] | Logothetidis S (2014) Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-24181-9 |
| [91] |
Dézsi L, Fülöp T, Mészáros T, et al. (2014) Features of complement activation-related pseudoallergy to liposomes with different surface charge and PEGylation: comparison of the porcine and rat responses. J Control Release 195: 2-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2014.08.009
|
| [92] |
Drouin SM, Kildsgaard J, Haviland J, et al. (2001) Expression of the complement anaphylatoxin C3a and C5a receptors on bronchial epithelial and smooth muscle cells in models of sepsis and asthma. J Immunol 166: 2025-2032. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.166.3.2025
|
| [93] |
Hartmann K, Henz BM, Krüger-Krasagakes S, et al. (1997) C3a and C5a stimulate chemotaxis of human mast cells. Blood 89: 2863-2870. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood.V89.8.2863
|
| [94] |
Kanagaratham C, El Ansari YS, Lewis OL, et al. (2020) IgE and IgG antibodies as regulators of mast cell and basophil functions in food allergy. Front Immunol 11: 603050. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.603050
|
| [95] |
Nimmerjahn F, Bruhns P, Horiuchi K, et al. (2005) Fcgamma RIV: a novel FcR with distinct IgG subclass specificity. Immunity 23: 41-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2005.05.010
|
| [96] |
Bruhns P, Jonsson F (2015) Mouse and human FcR effector functions. Immunol Rev 268: 25-51. https://doi.org/10.1111/imr.12350
|
| [97] |
Nimmerjahn F, Ravetch JV (2008) Fc gamma receptors as regulators of immune responses. Nat Rev Immunol 8: 34-47. https://doi.org/10.1038/nri2206
|
| [98] |
Nimmerjahn F, Ravetch JV (2006) Fcgamma receptors: old friends and new family members. Immunity 24: 19-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.immuni.2005.11.010
|
| [99] |
Cocchiara R, Albeggiani G, Di Trapani G (1990) Modulation of rat peritoneal mast cell and human basophil histamine release by estrogens. Int Arch Allergy Appl Immunol 93: 192-197. https://doi.org/10.1159/000235300
|
| [100] |
Nakasato H, Ohrui T, Sekizawa K (1999) Prevention of severe premenstrual asthma attacks by leukotriene receptor antagonist. J Allergy Clin Immunol 104: 585-588. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0091-6749(99)70327-1
|
| [101] |
Vliagoftis H, Dimitriadou V, Boucher W, et al. (1992) Estradiol augments while tamoxifen inhibits rat mast cell secretion. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 98: 398-409. https://doi.org/10.1159/000236217
|
| [102] |
Vrieze A, Postma DS, Kerstjens HA (2003) Perimenstrual asthma: a syndrome without known cause or cure. J Allergy Clin Immunol 112: 271-282. https://doi.org/10.1067/mai.2003.1676
|
| [103] |
Zaitsu M, Narita S, Lambert KC, et al. (2007) Estradiol activates mast cells via a non-genomic estrogen receptor-alpha and calcium influx. Mol Immunol 44: 1977-1985. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molimm.2006.09.030
|
| [104] |
Howard PJ, Ambrosuis WT, Tewksbury DA, et al. (1998) Serum Angiotensinogen concentration in relation to gonadal hormones, body size and genotype in growing young people. Hypertension 32: 875-879. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.HYP.32.5.875
|
| [105] |
Giacchetti G, Faloia E, Mariniello B, et al. (2002) Over expression of the renin angiotensin system in human visceral adipose tissue in normal and overweight subjects. Am J Hypertension 15: 381-388. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0895-7061(02)02257-4
|
| [106] |
Reinholz M, Ruzicka T, Schauber J (2012) Vitamin D and its role in allergic disease. Clin Exp Allergy 42: 817-826. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.2011.03923.x
|
| [107] |
Agrawal T, Gupta GK, Agrawal DK (2013) Vitamin D supplementation reduces airway hyperresponsiveness and allergic airway inflammation in a murine model. Clin Exp Allergy 43: 672-683. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12102
|
| [108] |
Aranow C (2011) Vitamin D and the immune system. J Investig Med 59: 881-886. https://doi.org/10.2310/JIM.0b013e31821b8755
|
| [109] |
Hewison M (2010) Vitamin D and the immune system: new perspectives on an old theme. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 39: 365-379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecl.2010.02.010
|
| [110] |
Norman AW, Mizwicki MT, Norman DP (2004) Steroid-hormone rapid actions, membrane receptors and a conformational ensemble model. Nat Rev Drug Discov 3: 27-41. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrd1283
|
| [111] |
Mahon BD, Wittke A, Weaver V, et al. (2003) The targets of vitamin D depend on the differentiation and activation status of CD4 positive T cells. J Cell Biochem 89: 922-932. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcb.10580
|
| [112] |
Fabri M, Stenger S, Shin DM, et al. (2011) Vitamin D is required for IFN-gamma-mediated antimicrobial activity of human macrophages. Sci Transl Med 3: 104ra102. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3003045
|
| [113] |
Gupta A, Dimeloe S, Richards DF, et al. (2014) Defective IL-10 expression and in vitro steroid-induced IL-17A in paediatric severe therapy-resistant asthma. Thorax 69: 508-515. https://doi.org/10.1136/thoraxjnl-2013-203421
|
| [114] |
Herman K, Ring J (1990) Hymenoptera venom anaphylaxis: may decrease levels of angiotensin peptides play a role?. Clin Exp All 20: 569-570. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.1990.tb03151.x
|
| [115] |
Herman K, Ring J (1993) The renin angiotensin system and hymenoptera venom anaphylaxis. Clin Exp Allergy 23: 762-769. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2222.1993.tb00364.x
|
| [116] |
Summers CW, Pumphrey RS, Woods CN, et al. (2008) Factors predicting anaphylaxis to peanuts and tree nuts in patients referred to a specialist centre. J Allergy Clin Immunol 121: 632-638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2007.12.003
|
| [117] |
Slade CA, Douglass JA (2014) Changing practice: no need to stop ACE inhibitors for venom immunotherapy. Clin Exp Allergy 44: 617-619. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12295
|
| [118] | Varney VA, Warner A, Ghosh A, et al. (2012) IgE mediated anaphylaxis to foods, venom, and drugs; influence of serum angiotensin converting enzyme levels and genotype. J Allergy (Cairo) 2012: 258145. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/258145 |
| [119] | Niedoszytko M, Ratajska M, Jassem E (2007) AGT(M235T), ACE(I/D, I/I, D/D) polymorphism in patients with insect venom allergy preliminary results. Allergy 62: 111. |
| [120] | Mueller UR (1990) Clinical presentation and pathogenesis. Insect sting allergy. Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer 33-65. |
| [121] |
Dimitropoulou C, Chatterjee A, McCloud L (2006) Angiotensin, bradykinin and the endothelium. The Vascular Endothelium I. Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer 255-294. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-32967-6_8
|
| [122] |
Varney VA, Nicholas A, Warner A, et al. (2019) IgE-mediated systemic anaphylaxis and its association with gene polymorphisms of ACE, angiotensinogen and chymase. J Asthma Allergy 12: 343-361. https://doi.org/10.2147/JAA.S213016
|
| [123] |
Nisho H, Takai S, Miyazaki M, et al. (2005) Usefulness of serum mast cells specific chymase levels for postmortem diagnosis of anaphylaxis. Int J Legal Med 119: 331-334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-005-0524-1
|
| [124] |
Zhou X, Whitworth HS, E-Khedr M, et al. (2011) Mast cell chymase: a useful marker in anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 127: 990-997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2011.01.057
|
| [125] |
Gulen T, Akin C (2021) Idiopathic anaphylaxis: a perplexing diagnostic challenge for allergists. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 21: 11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11882-021-00988-y
|
| [126] |
Akin C (2014) Mast cell activation disorders. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 2: 252-257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2014.03.007
|
| [127] |
Metcalfe DD, Peavy RD, Gilfillan AM (2009) Mechanisms of mast cell signaling in anaphylaxis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 124: 639-646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2009.08.035
|
| [128] |
Gulen T, Hagglund H, Dahlen SE, et al. (2014) Flushing, fatigue, and recurrent anaphylaxis: a delayed diagnosis of mastocytosis. Lancet 383: 1608. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60585-7
|
| [129] |
Valent P, Akin C, Arock M, et al. (2012) Definitions, criteria and global classification of mast cell disorders with special reference to mast cell activation syndromes: a consensus proposal. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 157: 215-225. https://doi.org/10.1159/000328760
|
| [130] |
Nakamura Y, Nakano N, Ishimaru K, et al. (2016) Inhibition of IgE-mediated allergic reactions by pharmacologically targeting the circadian clock. J Allergy Clin Immunol 137: 1226-1235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2015.08.052
|
| [131] |
Kristensen T, Vestergaard H, Bindslev-Jensen C, et al. (2014) Sensitive KIT D816V mutation analysis of blood as a diagnostic test in mastocytosis. Am J Hematol 89: 493-498. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajh.23672
|
| [132] |
Bonadonna P, bonifacio M, Lambarderdo C, et al. (2015) Hymenoptera anaphylaxis and C-KIT Mutations: An unexpected association. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 15: 49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11882-015-0550-0
|
| [133] |
Sonneck K, Florian S, Mullauer L, et al. (2007) Diagnostic and sub-diagnostic accumulation of mast cells in the bone marrow of patients with anaphylaxis: Monoclonal mast cell activation syndrome. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 142: 158-164. https://doi.org/10.1159/000096442
|
| [134] |
Valent P, Akin C, Bonadonna P, et al. (2019) Proposed diagnostic algorithm for patients with suspected mast cell activation syndrome. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 7: 1125-1133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2019.01.006
|
| [135] |
Gulen T, Hagglund H, Dahlen B, et al. Mastocytosis: the puzzling clinical spectrum and challenging diagnostic aspects of an enigmatic disease. J Intern Med 279: 211-228. https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.12410
|
| [136] |
Valent P, Akin C, Metcalfe DD (2016) Mastocytosis 2016: updated WHO classification and novel emerging treatment concepts. Blood 129: 1420-1427. https://doi.org/10.1182/blood-2016-09-731893
|
| [137] |
Gotlib J, Kluin-Nelemans HC, George TI, et al. (2016) Efficacy and safety of midostaurin in advanced systemic mastocytosis. N Engl J Med 374: 2530-2541. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1513098
|
| [138] |
Fuchs D, Kilbertus A, Kofler K, et al. (2021) Scoring the risk of having systemic mastocytosis in adult patients with mastocytosis in the skin. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 9: 1705-1712.e4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2020.12.022
|
| [139] |
Kennedy VE, Perkins C, Reiter A, et al. (2023) Mast cell leukemia: clinical and molecular features and survival outcomes of patients in the ECNM Registry. Blood Adv 7: 1713-1724. https://doi.org/10.1182/bloodadvances.2022008292
|
| [140] |
Gulen T, Ljung C, Nilsson G, et al. (2017) Risk factor analysis of anaphylactic reactions in patients with systemic mastocytosis. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 5: 1248-1255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2017.02.008
|
| [141] |
Gulen T, Hagglund H, Dahlen B, et al. (2014) High prevalence of anaphylaxis in patients with systemic mastocytosis - a single-centre experience. Clin Exp Allergy 44: 121-129. https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.12225
|
| [142] |
Monaco A, Choi D, Uzun S, et al. (2022) Association of mast-cell-related conditions with hypermobile syndromes: a review of the literature. Immunol Res 70: 419-431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12026-022-09280-1
|
| [143] |
Sumantri S, Rengganis I (2023) Immunological dysfunction and mast cell activation syndrome in long COVID. Asia Pac Allergy 13: 50-53. https://doi.org/10.5415/apallergy.0000000000000022
|
| [144] |
Voelker D, Pongdee T (2014) Urine mast cell mediators in the evaluation and diagnosis of mast cell activation syndrome. Curr Allergy Asthma Rep 24: 33-38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11882-024-01128-y
|
| [145] |
Zhu L, Jian X, Zhou B, et al. (2024) Gut microbiota facilitate chronic spontaneous urticaria. Nat Commun 15: 112. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-44373-x
|
| [146] |
Robey RC, Wilcock A, Bonin H, et al. (2020) Hereditary alpha-tryptasemia: UK prevalence and variability in disease expression. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 8: 3549-3556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2020.05.057
|
| [147] |
Chollet MB, Akin C (2021) Hereditary alpha tryptasemia is not associated with specific clinical phenotypes. J Allergy Clin Immunol 148: 889-894. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2021.06.017
|
| [148] |
Butterfield JH, Ravi A, Pongdee T (2018) Mast cell mediators of significance in clinical practice in mastocytosis. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 38: 397-410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iac.2018.04.011
|
| [149] |
Lyons JJ, Sun G, Stone KD, et al. (2014) Mendelian inheritance of elevated serum tryptase associated with atopy and connective tissue abnormalities. J Allergy Clin Immunol 133: 1471-1474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2013.11.039
|
| [150] |
Lyons JJ, Yu X, Hughes JD, et al. (2016) Elevated basal serum tryptase identifies a multisystem disorder associated with increased TPSAB1 copy number. Nat Genet 48: 1564-1569. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.3696
|
| [151] |
Simons FE, Ardusso LR, Bilo MB, et al. (2011) World allergy organization guidelines for the assessment and management of anaphylaxis. World Allergy Organ J 4: 13-37. https://doi.org/10.1097/WOX.0b013e318211496c
|
| [152] |
Braganza SC, Acworth JP, McKinnon DR, et al. (2006) Paediatric emergency department anaphylaxis: different patterns from adults. Arch Dis Child 91: 159-163. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2004.069914
|
| [153] |
Muraro A, Roberts G, Worm M, et al. (2014) Anaphylaxis: guidelines from the European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology. Allergy 69: 1026-1045. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.12437
|
| [154] |
Jarkvist J, Salehi C, Akin C, et al. (2020) Venom immunotherapy in patients with clonal mast cell disorders: IgG4 correlates with protection. Allergy 75: 169-177. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.13980
|
| [155] |
Broesby-Olsen S, Vestergaard H, Mortz CG, et al. (2018) Omalizumab prevents anaphylaxis and improves symptoms in systemic mastocytosis: efficacy and safety observations. Allergy 73: 230-238. https://doi.org/10.1111/all.13237
|
| [156] |
Gotlib J, Kluin-Nelemans HC, Akin C, et al. (2021) Practical management of adverse events in patients with advanced systemic mastocytosis receiving midostaurin. Expert Opin Biol Ther 21: 487-498. https://doi.org/10.1080/14712598.2021.1837109
|
| [157] |
Gotlib J, Kluin-Nelemans HC, George TI, et al. (2016) Efficacy and safety of midostaurin in advanced systemic mastocytosis. N Engl J Med 374: 2530-2541. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1513098
|
| [158] |
Kudlaty E, Perez M, Stein BL, et al. (2021) Systemic mastocytosis with an associated hematologic neoplasm complicated by recurrent anaphylaxis: prompt resolution of anaphylaxis with the addition of avapritinib. J Allergy Clin Immunol Pract 9: 2534-2536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaip.2021.02.040
|
Figures(1) / Tables(2)
Amolak S Bansal, Alex Nicholas, Nazira Sumar, Veronica Varney. Mast cells, mediators, and symptomatic activation[J]. AIMS Allergy and Immunology, 2024, 8(1): 34-55. doi: 10.3934/Allergy.2024004
DownLoad: