Review Special Issues

A comprehensive review of solar thermal desalination technologies for freshwater production

  • This review is inspired by the increasing shortage of fresh water in areas of the world, and is written in response to the expanding demand for sustainable technologies due to the prevailing crisis of depleting natural water resources. It focuses on comprehending different solar energy-based technologies. Since the increasing population has resulted in the rising demand for freshwater, desalination installation volume is rapidly increasing globally. Conventional ways of desalination technologies involve the use of fossil fuels to extract thermal energy which imparts adverse impacts on the environment. To lessen the carbon footprint left by energy-intensive desalination processes, the emphasis has shifted to using renewable energy sources to drive desalination systems. The growing interest in combining solar energy with desalination with an emphasis on increasing energy efficiency has been sparked by the rapid advancements in solar energy technology, particularly solar thermal. This review paper aims to reflect various developments in solar thermal desalination technologies and presents prospects of solar energy-based desalination techniques. This paper reviews direct and indirect desalination techniques coupled with solar energy, and goes on to explain recent trends in technologies. This review also summarizes the emerging trends in the field of solar thermal desalination technologies. The use of nanoparticles and photo-thermal materials for localized heating in solar desalination systems has decreased energy consumption and enhanced the efficiency of the system. Solar power combined with emerging processes like membrane distillation (MD) has also a recent resurgence.

    Citation: Laveet Kumar, Jahanzaib Soomro, Hafeez Khoharo, Mamdouh El Haj Assad. A comprehensive review of solar thermal desalination technologies for freshwater production[J]. AIMS Energy, 2023, 11(2): 293-318. doi: 10.3934/energy.2023016

    Related Papers:

    [1] Zhiguo Qu, Shengyao Wu, Le Sun, Mingming Wang, Xiaojun Wang . Effects of quantum noises on χ state-based quantum steganography protocol. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2019, 16(5): 4999-5021. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2019252
    [2] Dingwei Tan, Yuliang Lu, Xuehu Yan, Lintao Liu, Longlong Li . High capacity reversible data hiding in MP3 based on Huffman table transformation. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2019, 16(4): 3183-3194. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2019158
    [3] Guodong Ye, Huishan Wu, Kaixin Jiao, Duan Mei . Asymmetric image encryption scheme based on the Quantum logistic map and cyclic modulo diffusion. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2021, 18(5): 5427-5448. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2021275
    [4] Yongju Tong, YuLing Liu, Jie Wang, Guojiang Xin . Text steganography on RNN-Generated lyrics. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2019, 16(5): 5451-5463. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2019271
    [5] Yanfeng Shi, Shuo Qiu, Jiqiang Liu, Tinghuai Ma . Novel efficient lattice-based IBE schemes with CPK for fog computing. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2020, 17(6): 8105-8122. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2020411
    [6] Xin Wang, Bo Yang . An improved signature model of multivariate polynomial public key cryptosystem against key recovery attack. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2019, 16(6): 7734-7750. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2019388
    [7] Liyun Liu, Zichi Wang, Zhenxing Qian, Xinpeng Zhang, Guorui Feng . Steganography in beautified images. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2019, 16(4): 2322-2333. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2019116
    [8] Xianyi Chen, Anqi Qiu, Xingming Sun, Shuai Wang, Guo Wei . A high-capacity coverless image steganography method based on double-level index and block matching. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2019, 16(5): 4708-4722. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2019236
    [9] P. Balamanikandan, S. Jeya Bharathi . A mathematical modelling to detect sickle cell anemia using Quantum graph theory and Aquila optimization classifier. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2022, 19(10): 10060-10077. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2022470
    [10] Melanie A. Jensen, Qingzhou Feng, William O. Hancock, Scott A. McKinley . A change point analysis protocol for comparing intracellular transport by different molecular motor combinations. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 2021, 18(6): 8962-8996. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2021442
  • This review is inspired by the increasing shortage of fresh water in areas of the world, and is written in response to the expanding demand for sustainable technologies due to the prevailing crisis of depleting natural water resources. It focuses on comprehending different solar energy-based technologies. Since the increasing population has resulted in the rising demand for freshwater, desalination installation volume is rapidly increasing globally. Conventional ways of desalination technologies involve the use of fossil fuels to extract thermal energy which imparts adverse impacts on the environment. To lessen the carbon footprint left by energy-intensive desalination processes, the emphasis has shifted to using renewable energy sources to drive desalination systems. The growing interest in combining solar energy with desalination with an emphasis on increasing energy efficiency has been sparked by the rapid advancements in solar energy technology, particularly solar thermal. This review paper aims to reflect various developments in solar thermal desalination technologies and presents prospects of solar energy-based desalination techniques. This paper reviews direct and indirect desalination techniques coupled with solar energy, and goes on to explain recent trends in technologies. This review also summarizes the emerging trends in the field of solar thermal desalination technologies. The use of nanoparticles and photo-thermal materials for localized heating in solar desalination systems has decreased energy consumption and enhanced the efficiency of the system. Solar power combined with emerging processes like membrane distillation (MD) has also a recent resurgence.



    Compared with classical information hiding, quantum information hiding has unparalleled advantages based on the non-cloning theorem, uncertainty principle, quantum non-locality, such as good security and high information transmission efficiency. Since Bennett and Brassard proposed the first quantum cryptography communication protocol in 1984 [1], many quantum cryptographic communication protocols such as quantum key distribution (QKD) [2,3,4], quantum identity authentication (QIA) [5], quantum secrets sharing (QSS) [6,7,8] and quantum security direct communications (QSDC) [9,10] have emerged. In recent years, the theoretical research and application of quantum communication has been developed in a variety of ways, including quantum computation [11], quantum remote state preparation [12,13,14], quantum network coding [15,16], quantum auction [17] and quantum machine learning [18,19].

    Among them, quantum steganography, as a research branch of quantum information hiding, aims at covertly transmitting secret information in public quantum channel. Usually, it can be mainly divided into two categories. The first one is to use quantum communication characteristics to perform covert communication through single-particle or multi-particle as quantum carriers [20,21,22]. In 2018, Zhu et al. proposed a novel quantum steganography protocol based on Brown entangled states, which proved its good security resisting on quantum noise [23]. The second is to embed secret information into various multimedia carriers for covert communication [24,25]. In 2018, Qu et al. proposed a novel quantum image steganography algorithm based on exploiting modification direction [26].

    So far, most of the previous quantum steganography protocols are mainly based on discrete variables. Recently, the continuous variable quantum communication technique is beginning to emerge [27]. It uses a classical light source as a signal source, and can encode information on a continuously changing observable physical quantity with low cost due to easy implementation. The encoded information is a symbol, which can be restored to binary bits only after some specific data processing. Therefore, the capacity of this technique can be large and the key generation rate is also high, which has quickly attracted widespread attention. As an example, the continuous-variable quantum key distribution (CVQKD) has absolute advantages over the discrete-variable quantum key distribution (DVQKD). The detection of DVQKD is based on single photons. The single photon signal is not only difficult to manufacture, but also difficult to be detected and costly. The CVQKD is using homodyne/heterodyne decoding to obtain quadrature encoding, which greatly improves the technical efficiency. In addition, non-Gaussian operations have many applications in improving the quantum entanglement and teleportation. In 2003, Olivares et al. proposed the Inconclusive photon subtraction (IPS) to improve teleportation [28]. In 2015, Wu et al. applied local coherent superposition of photon subtraction and addition to each mode of even entangled coherent state to introduce a new entangled quantum state [29]. In 2018, the CVQKD with non-Gaussian quantum catalysis was proposed [30].

    In this paper, a continuous variable quantum steganography protocol is proposed based on the continuous variable GHZ entangled state [31] and the continuous variable quamtum identity authentication protocol [32]. The protocol can realize the transmission of deterministic secret information in public quantum channel of identity authentication. It can convert segmented secret information into the whole secret information by adopting the specific encoding rule, randomly selecting quantum channel and replacing time slot. Through effectively verifying the identity of users, in the new protocol, the secret information can be implicitly transmitted to the recipient Bob, while the eavesdropper Eve disables to detect the existence of covert communication. Compared with the previous quantum steganography protocols, by introducing continuous variables into quantum steganography and making full use its characteristics of continuous variable, the proposed protocol can obtain the advantages of good imperceptibility, security and easy implementation for good applicability.

    The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 introduces some basic knowledge about optics, the preparation of continuous variable GHZ states, and the principle of continuous variable quantum telecommuting required for the identity authentication process. Section 3 describes the concrete steps of the new continuous variable quantum steganography protocol in detail. Section 4 mainly analyzes the new protocol's imperceptibility, security and efficiency of information transmission, even in quantum noise environment. The conclusions are given in Section 5.

    We first review some of the knowledge of quantum optics. By using the creation operator a and the annihilation operator a, the two regular components including the amplitude x and the phase p of a beam can be expressed as

    x=12(a+a) (2.1)
    p=i2(aa) (2.2)

    where a and a satisfy boson reciprocity [a,a]=[a,a]=0, [a,a]=1. Therefore [x,p]=i2, two typical components x and p satisfy the Heisenberg uncertainty principle: ΔxΔp14.

    A squeezed beam can be defined as

    |α,r=x+ip=erx(0)+ierp(0) (2.3)

    where r is the compression factor. If r<0, it indicates that the beam amplitude is compressed; if r>0, it indicates that the beam phase is compressed. x(0) and p(0) indicate the amplitude and the phase of the vacuum state respectively, and x(0),p(0)N(0,14).

    In the proposed protocol, the legal communication parties share the encoding rule in advance. They can encode the discrete information into different intervals(Turbo codes [33] or LDPC code [34]).

    The continuous variable GHZ state is very important for quantum information processing and quantum communication in the new protocol. As shown in Figure 1, the continuous variable GHZ state is produced by making two squeezed vacuum states ain1 and ain2 pass through a beam splitter BS1 (transmission coefficient is 0.5) to generate aout1 and ain3 firstly. And then, it makes ain3 and another squeezed vacuum state ain3 pass through a beam splitter BS2 (transmission coefficient is 1) to generate aout2 and aout3. Obviously, aout1, aout2 and aout3 is a set of the continuous variable GHZ entangled state that be defined as

    xout1=13er1xin1(0)+23er2xin2(0) (2.4)
    pout1=13er1pin1(0)+23er2pin2(0) (2.5)
    xout2=13er1xin1(0)16er2xin2(0)+12er3xin3(0) (2.6)
    pout2=13er1pin1(0)16er2pin2(0)+12er3pin3(0) (2.7)
    xout3=13er1xin1(0)16er2xin2(0)12er3xin3(0) (2.8)
    pout3=13er1pin1(0)16er2pin2(0)12er3pin3(0) (2.9)
    Figure 1.  Preparation of continuous variable GHZ state.

    Let suppose that r1=r2=r3=r, it can calculate the correlation of amplitude and phase between aout1, aout2 and aout3

    [Δ(xout1xout2)]2=(1234)e2r (2.10)
    [Δ(xout1xout3)]2=(12+34)e2r (2.11)
    [Δ(pout1+pout2+pout3)]2=34e2r (2.12)

    If the compression parameter r+, the correlation between the output optical modes aout1, aout2 and aout3 will become stronger and stronger

    limr+(xout1xout2)=limr+(xout1xout3)=0 (2.13)
    limr+(pout1+pout2+pout3)=0 (2.14)

    It is obvious that the amplitude between any two of the continuous variable GHZ state output modes is positively correlated, and the phase between them also has the entanglement characteristic.

    The principle of continuous variable quantum telecommuting can be described as shown in Figure 2. Alice prepares a coherent state aA=|xA+ipA to be transmitted. Simultaneously, Alice and Bob share two entangled optical modes aout1 and aout2. After everything is ready, Alice sends the coherent state and aout1 through a 50/50 beam splitter for Bell state measurement to obtain xo and po

    xo=12(xAxout1) (2.15)
    po=12(pA+pout1) (2.16)
    Figure 2.  The principle of continuous variable quantum telecommuting.

    After Alice announces the measurement results through the classic channel, Bob takes the corresponding unitary operation D(β=2(xo+ipo)) on aout2 to obtain

    xB=xout2+2xo=xA(xout1xout2) (2.17)
    pB=pout2+2po=pA+(pout1+pout2) (2.18)

    According to Eqs. (2.13) and (2.14), if the compressing parameter r+, we can obtain xB=xA, pB=pApout3. It means that Alice and Bob obtain a highly correlated sequence on the amplitude component. Therefore, in the proposed protocol, we only modulate the effective information on the amplitude component and the uncorrelated random information n on the phase component.

    We propose a novel continuous variable quantum steganography protocol based on quantum identity authentication protocol and continuous variable GHZ state. It can effectively transmit deterministic secret information in the public quantum channel. When Bob attempts to communicate with Alice, they need to share an initial identity key K1 and a series of time slot keys T which are binary sequences known only to Alice and Bob in advance. Here, D(α), D(α1) and D(α1) are the displacement operation; D(o) is the unitary operation, and H is the fidelity parameter. The yellow area represents the normal information transmission mode. The red area represents the secret information transmission mode.

    The details of the protocol are shown in Figure 3. We assume that the quantum channel is lossless, the proposed protocol is as follows.

    Figure 3.  Continuous variable quantum steganography protocol.

    Alice prepares the continuous variable GHZ entangled states aout1, aout2 and aout3. Alice keeps aout1 by herself, then transmits aout2 and aout3 to Bob through two quantum channels R1 and R2 respectively. Alice randomly selects a quantum channel for normal information transmission mode (identity authentication). The other is the channel of the secret information transmission mode (steganographic information).

    The normal information transmission mode:

    (A1) Alice chooses aout2 (R1 channel) or aout3 (R2 channel) to send to Bob. For convenience, we assume that the channel selected by the normal information transmission mode is the R1 channel.

    (A2) After Alice confirms that Bob has received aout2, she converts K1 to decimal sequence k1. And then, Alice selects two decimal numbers k2 and v, satisfying the normal distribution N(0,σ2). Alice prepares a vacuum state |0 with displacement operation D(α1=(k1+k2)+in). The coherent state optical mode a1 which is used to update the identity key, is obtained. Simultaneously, Alice also prepares a vacuum state with displacement operation D(α1=(k1+v)+in). The coherent state optical mode a1, which is used as a decoy state for identity authentication, is obtained. After that, Alice randomly selects a1 or a1 to make Bell state measurement with aout1 on each time slot and obtains, xo=12(x1xout1) and po=12(p1+pout1), or xo=12(x1xout1) and po=12(p1+pout1). Then, Alice announces xo and po to Bob through the public classic channel.

    (A3) According to the received xo and po, Bob performs the unitary operation D(o=2(xo+ipo)) on the received aout2, and then selects the amplitude component to measure and get the sequence δ. Alice publishes the time slots t which used a1, and Bob measures the amplitude components on these time slots to obtain a sequence δ1. The value of sequence δ minus sequence δ1 is defined as δ1.

    (A4) Bob converts K1 to a decimal sequence k1, then calculates v=δ1k1. After Bob announces v, Alice calculates a fidelity parameter H=[vφv]2min. In the lossless channel, we get φ=1. If the calculation H is equal to 0, it means k1=k1. The user identity is verified to be legal. Bob then updates the identity key sequence δ1k1 to obtain k2. If H is greater than 0, it means that the eavesdropper Eve exists or the user is illegal. As a result, the communication will be abandoned.

    The secret information transmission mode:

    (B1) Alice divides her steganographic information into p-blocks for block transmission. Let assume that the steganographic information of the q-th block (qp) is 010. According to the previously shared encoding rule, steganographic information 010 corresponds to the interval (2,1]. After that, Alice takes the first time slot Ta from the binary time slot key T and converts it to a decimal number ta. And then, she chooses the random variable m(2,1], and does the translation operation D(α=m+in) on aout3 in the time slot ta to get aout3, where m is the secret information that needs to be transmitted. Alice sends aout3 to Bob via quantum channel R2.

    (B2) Bob also obtains ta based on the shared time slot key, and measures the amplitude component of the received beam mode aout3 in the time slot ta to obtain the sequence ξ1. After that, Bob then selects the time slot tu(ua) to measure the amplitude component for obtaining the sequence ξ2. Bob calculates ξ1ξ2 to obtain the secret information m.

    (B3) According to the previously shared encoding rule, the information of the q-th block is obtained by Bob. The identity keys of both parties are also updated, and the transmission of the secret information of this block is completed. In the next round, Alice randomly selects one quantum channel for normal information transmission mode, and another quantum channel for secret information transmission mode. Then Alice repeats the above steps until all the steganographic information are transmitted.

    As shown in Figure 3, when Alice wants to transmit private information to Bob, she randomly selects a quantum channel for identity authentication by using the modulated vacuum states and the continuous variable quantum telecommuting. At the same time, after the encoded secret information is modulated in the shared time slot, the transmission of the secret information is also carried out in another quantum channel. Under the cover of determining whether the Bob's identity is legal, it is difficult for an eavesdropper to discover that another channel is transmitting information. Even if the eavesdropper knows the existence of the secret information, it is impossible to obtain useful information without knowing the modulated time slot and the encoding rule.

    In the field of experiment, the protocol is also feasible. The secure transmission using entangled squeezed states has been exemplified [35]. The experimental demonstration of the continuous variable quantum telecommuting has also been proposed [36]. Our protocol is mainly based on these two techniques. Therefore, this protocol is capable of having good performance in experiments.

    The security of the scheme is mainly based on the entanglement properties of the GHZ state, the specific encoding rule, the shared time slot key and the block transmission. Among them, quantum entanglement guarantees the correlation of quantum transmission. The encoding rule ensures that the information in the quantum channel is not completely equal to the identity key information. The shared time slot key decides the writing and reading of the secret information.

    The normal message transmission mode is to avoid Eve's active attack through identity authentication. In order to conduct an active attack, Eve needs to be authenticated. The most effective method is to obtain an updated authentication key and implement an active attack in the next authentication flow. In order to obtain the updated authentication key, Eve's good optional method is to intercept all the quantum signals sent by Alice and measure their components. Combined with the information sent by the classic channel, Eve can recover the updated authentication key and prepare a quantum state to send to Bob during an authentication process. However, due to the quantum uncertainty principle, Eve will inevitably introduce excessive noise, which will be detected by the legal user through the calculation of the fidelity parameter. As shown in Figure 3, there are two quantum channels and two classical channels in the proposed protocol. We have always assumed that the information transmitted in the classical channel is public, and the security of the normal information transmission mode has been proved above [32]. Therefore, we focus on the security of the secret information transmission mode.

    It's noteworthy that this protocol may suffer from physical attacks, such as the wavelength attack. This kind of attack makes full of use of the potential imperfections in the protocol's implementation to enable the eavesdropper to control the light intensity transmission of the receiver's splitter. The attack method is to intercept the beam and measure the signal using the local oscillator by heterodyne measurement to obtain the quadrature values, and then switch the wavelength of the input light. It can make the eavesdropper completely control the receiver's beam splitter without being discovered. In this case, the new protocol is also capable of resisting the attack by randomly adding or not adding a wavelength filter before the monitoring detector and observing the difference value [37].

    Because only two quantum channels (R1 and R2) are used to transmit quantum information and the information is modulated on the amplitude and phase of the beam, the attacker Eve can take an attack by using a spectroscope to intercept the signal for measurement and attempting to obtain the key. As shown in Figure 4, Let assume that the spectroscopic coefficient used by Eve is γ(0γ1). The two beams aA1 and aA2 sent by Alice pass through the beam splitter and become

    aB1=γaA1+1γaN1 (4.1)
    aB2=γaA2+1γaN2 (4.2)
    Figure 4.  The spectroscopic noise attack.

    Eve can obtain aE1 and aE2

    aE1=γaN11γaA1 (4.3)
    aE2=γaN21γaA2 (4.4)

    According to the difference of the spectroscopic coefficients, the safety analysis can be carried out in three cases:

    1. If γ=0, Eve intercepts all signals. In this case, Eve may combine aE1 and aE2 with the Bell state measurement to obtain

    xu=12(xE1xE2)=12(xA1xA2) (4.5)
    pu=12(pE1+pE2)=12(pA1+pA2) (4.6)

    Due to the correlation between the amplitudes of aA1 and aA2, Eve measures the amplitude component, as xu0. Even if the time slot containing the secret information has been stolen, Eve disables to get any information. The phase of aA1 and aA2 does not modulate the secret information, and only the uncorrelated random information n exists. Therefore, Eve will only think that it is the ordinary noise in the quantum channel, so that the transmission of the secret information can be undetected.

    Eve may also measure aA1 and aA2 separately. According to the principle of key modulation, let assume that Eve measures the amplitude of aA1 and the phase of aA2 respectively. Because the correlation of amplitude, Eve can recover aA2 after measurement. However, due to the quantum uncertainty principle, Eve cannot recover the phase of aA1 and this operation will reduce the phase entanglement of the GHZ state. It will inevitably be detected by performing eavesdropping detection from legitimate parties.

    It can be seen that Eve's eavesdropping will be detected by legitimate parties, and this protocol can safely transmit secret information when γ=0.

    2. If γ=1, Eve does not take any action, obviously cannot get any information.

    3. When 0γ1, Eve only intercepts part of the signal, and another part of the signal is still transmitted to the receiver.

    In this case, due to the entanglement properties of the GHZ state, Eve cannot obtain effective information with the Bell state measurement, so Eve can only operate on aE1 and aE2 separately. Because the secret information is modulated on one of the quantum channels, let choose aE1 to analyze it as an example. Let Assume that the quantum channel transmission efficiency is λ, the signal received by Bob will be

    aB1=λaA1+1λaN1 (4.7)

    Eve needs to amplify aE1 to avoid being detected and sends it to Bob with aB1. The effective signal received by Bob is

    a=gaE1+aB1 (4.8)

    Here, g is the gain compensation. According to Eqs. (4.1), (4.3) and (4.8), in order to receive the signal λaA1 for Bob, it needs to be satisfied with

    λaA1=g1γaA1+γaA1 (4.9)

    Eve obtain g=γλ1γ. Due to the information is modulated on the amplitude component, the noise signal received by Bob will be

    aN=1λγ1γxN1 (4.10)

    If γλ and aN1λxN1, the signal-to-noise ratio received by Bob will change. The legitimate parties will find Eve in the eavesdropping detection. If γ=λ, g=0, it does not require the gain compensation. Eve will be undetected by the legitimate parties.

    Therefore, if 0γ1, Eve can adopt the best attack method is intercepting by a beam splitter with the same spectroscopic coefficient and channel transmission efficiency. The signal received by Eve will be

    aE1=λaN11λaA1 (4.11)

    The signal received by Bob is

    aB1=λaA1+1λaN1 (4.12)

    According to Eq. (2.6), the amplitude components of Eve and Bob are obtained as follows

    xE1=λxN11λ[13erxin1(0)16erxin2(0)+12erxin3(0)] (4.13)
    xB1=λ[13erxin1(0)16erxin2(0)+12erxin3(0)]+1λxN1 (4.14)

    Here, xN1N(0,VN1). If we measure the amplitude of aB1, only λ3erx1(0) will be the effective signal, while the rest are noise. The signal-to-noise ratio of Bob can be calculated as

    MB1NB1=λe2r2λe2r+12(1λ)VN1 (4.15)

    The amount of information between Alice and Bob is

    I(A,B)=12log2(1+MB1NB1) (4.16)

    Similarly, the signal-to-noise ratio of Eve is

    ME1NE1=(1λ)e2r2(1λ)e2r+12λVN1 (4.17)

    The amount of information between Alice and Eve is

    I(A,E)=12log2(1+ME1NE1) (4.18)

    Therefore, according to the Shannon information theory, the quantum channel transmission rate is

    ΔI=I(A,B)I(A,E)=12log2(λ(e2r+2e2r)+12(1λ)VN12λe2r+12(1λ)VN12(1λ)e2r+12λ(1λ)(e2r+2e2r)+12λVN1) (4.19)

    If VN1=14, the secret information transmission rate obtained by Eq. (4.19) is as shown in Figure 5. The secret information transmission rate ΔI is proportional to the quantum channel transmission efficiency λ. If the channel transmission efficiency λ<0.5, the information transmission rate ΔI<0, the amount of information acquired by Eve is greater than the amount of information obtained by Bob, so that the channel is unsafe. If the channel transmission efficiency λ>0.5, the information transmission rate ΔI>0, the secret information transmission can be carried out safely. The security of the proposed protocol is also dependent on the entanglement properties of the continuous variable GHZ state. If the compression parameter r=0, the information transmission rate will reach 0. It is almost impossible to transmit information. If the compression parameter r increases, the information transmission rate also increases. Compared with discrete variable communication, it can also greatly reduce the quantum states that need to be prepared and shorten the time required for information transmission. For example, the discrete variables communication can only transmit 1 bit of classical information per qubit. If a deterministic key of 1000 bits is needed, at least 1000 qubits are required. In the proposed protocol, if r=3 and the channel transmission efficiency is equal to 0.9, the information transmission rate will be 4 qubits/s. At this point, only 250 qubits is required to complete the same work. So it's obviously that the efficiency of information transmission can be greatly improved.

    Figure 5.  Secret information transmission rate (VN1=14).

    This paper proposes a novel continuous variable quantum steganography protocol based on quantum identity authentication. For covert communication, the protocol implements the transmission of secret information in public channel of quantum identity authentication. Compared with the existing quantum steganography results, by taking full advantage of entanglement properties of continuous variable GHZ state, this protocol not only has the advantages of good imperceptibility and easy implementation in physics, but also good security and information transmission efficiency, even under eavesdropping attacks especially to the spectroscopic noise attack. In addition, the capacity of secret information is potential to be enlarged by introducing better information coding method.

    This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 61373131, 61601358, 61501247, 61672290, 61303039, 61232016), the Six Talent Peaks Project of Jiangsu Province (Grant No. 2015-XXRJ-013), Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (Grant No. BK20171458), the Natural Science Foundation of the Higher Education Institutions of Jiangsu Province (China under Grant No.16KJB520030), Sichuan Youth Science and Technique Foundation (No.2017JQ0048), NUIST Research Foundation for Talented Scholars (2015r014), PAPD and CICAEET funds.

    The authors declare no conflict of interest.



    [1] UNESCO World Water Assessment Programme: UN World Water Development Report 2021: 'Valuing Water', 2021. Available from: https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000375724.
    [2] World Resource Institute: Aqueduct projected water stress country rankings, 2015. Tech Note. Available from: https://www.wri.org/research/aqueduct-projected-water-stress-country-rankings.
    [3] Al-Othman A, Darwish NN, Qasim M, et al. (2019) Nuclear desalination: A state-of-the-art review. Desalination 457: 39–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2019.01.002 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2019.01.002
    [4] Ghazi ZM, Rizvi SWF, Shahid WM, et al. (2022). An overview of water desalination systems integrated with renewable energy sources. Desalination 542: 116063. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2022.116063 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2022.116063
    [5] Chen C, Jiang Y, Ye Z, et al. (2019) Sustainably integrating desalination with solar power to overcome future freshwater scarcity in China. Global Energy Interconnect 2: 98–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloei.2019.07.009 doi: 10.1016/j.gloei.2019.07.009
    [6] Brendel LP, Shah VM, Groll EA, et al. (2020) A methodology for analyzing renewable energy opportunities for desalination and its application to Aruba. Desalination 493: 114613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114613 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2020.114613
    [7] Gude VG (2016) Geothermal source potential for water desalination: Current status and future perspective. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 57: 1038–1065. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.186 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2015.12.186
    [8] l-Nory M, El-Beltagy M (2014) An energy management approach for renewable energy integration with power generation and water desalination. Renewable Energy 72: 377–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2014.07.032 doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2014.07.032
    [9] Ghaffour N, Lattemann S, Missimer T, et al. (2014). Renewable energy-driven innovative energy-efficient desalination technologies. Appl Energy 136: 1155–1165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.03.033 doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.03.033
    [10] Fang S, Tu W, Mu L, et al. (2019) Saline alkali water desalination project in Southern Xinjiang of China: A review of desalination planning, desalination schemes and economic analysis. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 113: 109268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.109268 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2019.109268
    [11] Chen C, Jiang Y, Ye Z, et al. (2019) Sustainably integrating desalination with solar power to overcome future freshwater scarcity in China. Global Energy Interconnect 2: 98–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloei.2019.07.009 doi: 10.1016/j.gloei.2019.07.009
    [12] Huang L, Jiang H, Wang Y, et al. (2020) Enhanced water yield of solar desalination by thermal concentrated multistage distiller. Desalination 477: 114260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2019.114260 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2019.114260
    [13] Zheng Y, Hatzell KB (2020) Technoeconomic analysis of solar thermal desalination. Desalination 474: 114168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2019.114168 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2019.114168
    [14] Calise F, d'Accadia MD, Piacentino A (2014) A novel solar trigeneration system integrating PVT (photovoltaic/thermal collectors) and SW (seawater) desalination: Dynamic simulation and economic assessment. Energy 67: 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2013.12.060 doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2013.12.060
    [15] Thomson M, Miranda MS, Infield D (2003) A small-scale seawater reverse-osmosis system with excellent energy efficiency over a wide operating range. Desalination 153: 229–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(02)01141-4 doi: 10.1016/S0011-9164(02)01141-4
    [16] Karavas CS, Arvanitis G, Kyriakarakos G, et al. (2018) A novel autonomous PV powered desalination system based on a DC microgrid concept incorporating short-term energy storage. Sol Energy 159: 947–961. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2017.11.057 doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2017.11.057
    [17] Joyce A, Loureiro D, Rodrigues C, et al. (2001). Small reverse osmosis units using PV systems for water purification in rural places. Desalination 137: 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0011-9164(01)00202-8 doi: 10.1016/S0011-9164(01)00202-8
    [18] Li Y, Samad S, Ahmed FW, et al. (2020) Analysis and enhancement of PV efficiency with hybrid MSFLA–FLC MPPT method under different environmental conditions. J Cleaner Prod 271: 122195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122195 doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122195
    [19] Delgado-Torres AM, García-Rodríguez L, del Moral MJ (2020) Preliminary assessment of innovative seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination powered by a hybrid solar photovoltaic (PV)-Tidal range energy system. Desalination 477: 114247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2019.114247 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2019.114247
    [20] Bait O (2020) Direct and indirect solar-powered desalination processes loaded with nanoparticles: A review. Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 37: 100597. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2019.100597 doi: 10.1016/j.seta.2019.100597
    [21] Maka AO, O'Donovan TS (2020) A review of thermal load and performance characterisation of a high concentrating photovoltaic (HCPV) solar receiver assembly. Sol Energy 206: 35–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2020.05.022 doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2020.05.022
    [22] lminshawy NA, Gadalla MA, Bassyouni M, et al. (2020). A novel concentrated photovoltaic-driven membrane distillation hybrid system for the simultaneous production of electricity and potable water. Renewable Energy 162: 802–817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.08.041 doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2020.08.041
    [23] Mahmoudi H, Spahis N, Goosen MF, et al. (2009) Assessment of wind energy to power solar brackish water greenhouse desalination units: a case study from Algeria. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 13: 2149–2155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2009.03.001 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2009.03.001
    [24] Ma Q, Lu H (2011) Wind energy technologies integrated with desalination systems: Review and state-of-the-art. Desalination 277: 274–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.04.041 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2011.04.041
    [25] Abdelkareem MA, Assad ME, Sayed ET, et al. (2018) Corrigendum to "Recent progress in the use of renewable energy sources to power water desalination plants" (vol 435, pg 97, 2018). Desalination 444: 178–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2018.05.003 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2018.05.003
    [26] Vargas SA, Esteves GRT, Maçaira PM, et al. (2019) Wind power generation: A review and a research agenda. J Cleaner Prod 218: 850–870. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.02.015 doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.02.015
    [27] Baxter J, Walker C, Ellis G, et al. (2020) Scale, history and justice in community wind energy: An empirical review. Energy Res Soc Sci 68: 101532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2020.101532 doi: 10.1016/j.erss.2020.101532
    [28] Díaz H, Soares CG (2020) Review of the current status, technology and future trends of offshore wind farms. Ocean Eng 209: 107381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2020.107381 doi: 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2020.107381
    [29] Bundschuh J, Ghaffour N, Mahmoudi H, et al. (2015) Low-cost low-enthalpy geothermal heat for freshwater production: Innovative applications using thermal desalination processes. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 43: 196–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.102 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.102
    [30] Aguilar-Jiménez JA, Velázquez N, López-Zavala R, et al. (2020). Low-temperature multiple-effect desalination/organic Rankine cycle system with a novel integration for fresh water and electrical energy production. Desalination 477: 114269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2019.114269 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2019.114269
    [31] Kabay N, Köseoğlu P, Yapıcı D, et al. (2013) Coupling ion exchange with ultrafiltration for boron removal from geothermal water-investigation of process parameters and recycle tests. Desalination 316: 17–22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2013.01.027 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2013.01.027
    [32] Çermikli E, Şen F, Altıok E, et al. (2020) Performances of novel chelating ion exchange resins for boron and arsenic removal from saline geothermal water using adsorption-membrane filtration hybrid process. Desalination 491: 114504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114504 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2020.114504
    [33] Jang J, Kang Y, Han JH, et al. (2020) Developments and future prospects of reverse electrodialysis for salinity gradient power generation: Influence of ion exchange membranes and electrodes. Desalination 491: 114540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114540 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2020.114540
    [34] Ahmed FE, Hashaikeh R, Hilal N (2019) Solar powered desalination—Technology, energy and future outlook. Desalination 453: 54–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2018.12.002 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2018.12.002
    [35] Reif JH, Alhalabi W (2015) Solar-thermal powered desalination: Its significant challenges and potential. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 48: 152–165. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.03.065 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2015.03.065
    [36] Tarazona-Romero BE, Campos-Celador A, Maldonado-Muñoz YA (2022) Can solar desalination be small and beautiful? A critical review of existing technology under the appropriate technology paradigm. Energy Res Soc Sci 88: 102510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2022.102510 doi: 10.1016/j.erss.2022.102510
    [37] Sohani A, Hoseinzadeh S, Berenjkar K (2021) Experimental analysis of innovative designs for solar still desalination technologies; an in-depth technical and economic assessment. J Energy Storage 33: 101862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2020.101862 doi: 10.1016/j.est.2020.101862
    [38] Rufuss DDW, Iniyan S, Suganthi L, et al. (2016) Solar stills: A comprehensive review of designs, performance and material advances. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 63: 464–496. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.05.068 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2016.05.068
    [39] Shukla A, Kant K, Sharma A (2017) Solar still with latent heat energy storage: A review. Innovative Food Sci Emerging Technol 41: 34–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2017.01.004 doi: 10.1016/j.ifset.2017.01.004
    [40] Thakur AK, Sathyamurthy R, Sharshir SW, et al. (2021) Performance analysis of a modified solar still using reduced graphene oxide coated absorber plate with activated carbon pellet. Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 45: 101046. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2021.101046 doi: 10.1016/j.seta.2021.101046
    [41] Shoeibi S, Saemian M, Kargarsharifabad H, et al. (2022) A review on evaporation improvement of solar still desalination using porous material. Int Commun Heat Mass Transfer 138: 106387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2022.106387 doi: 10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2022.106387
    [42] Yin X, Zhang Y, Guo Q, et al. (2018) Macroporous double-network hydrogel for high-efficiency solar steam generation under 1 sun illumination. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces 10: 10998–11007. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.8b01629 doi: 10.1021/acsami.8b01629
    [43] Iqbal A, Mahmoud MS, Sayed ET, et al. (2021) Evaluation of the nanofluid-assisted desalination through solar stills in the last decade. J Environ Manage 277: 111415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111415 doi: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111415
    [44] Parsa SM, Rahbar A, Koleini MH, et al. (2020) A renewable energy-driven thermoelectric-utilized solar still with external condenser loaded by silver/nanofluid for simultaneously water disinfection and desalination. Desalination 480: 114354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114354 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2020.114354
    [45] Yu S, Zhang Y, Duan H, et al. (2015) The impact of surface chemistry on the performance of localized solar-driven evaporation system. Sci Rep 5: 13600. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep13600 doi: 10.1038/srep13600
    [46] Moustafa SMA, Jarrar DI, El-Mansy HI (1985) Performance of a self-regulating solar multistage flash desalination system. Sol Energy 35: 333–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-092X(85)90141-0 doi: 10.1016/0038-092X(85)90141-0
    [47] Garg K, Khullar V, Das SK, et al. (2018) Performance evaluation of a brine-recirculation multistage flash desalination system coupled with nanofluid-based direct absorption solar collector. Renewable Energy 122: 140–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.050 doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2018.01.050
    [48] Alsehli M (2021) Experimental validation of a solar powered multistage flash desalination unit with alternate storage tanks. Water 13: 2143. https://doi.org/10.3390/w13162143 doi: 10.3390/w13162143
    [49] Babaeebazaz A, Gorjian S, Amidpour M (2021) Integration of a solar parabolic dish collector with a small-scale multi-stage flash desalination unit: Experimental evaluation, exergy and economic analyses. Sustainability 13: 11295. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011295 doi: 10.3390/su132011295
    [50] Vahland S (2013) Analysis of parabolic trough solar energy integration into different geothermal power generation concepts. Available from: http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn%3Anbn%3Ase%3Akth%3Adiva-129093.
    [51] Khoshrou I, Nasr MJ, Bakhtari K (2017) New opportunities in mass and energy consumption of the Multi-Stage Flash Distillation type of brackish water desalination process. Sol Energy 153: 115–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2017.05.021 doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2017.05.021
    [52] Al-Mutaz IS, Wazeer I (2014) Comparative performance evaluation of conventional multi-effect evaporation desalination processes. Appl Therm Eng 73: 1194–1203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.09.025 doi: 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.09.025
    [53] Calise F, d'Accadia MD, Piacentino A (2015) Exergetic and exergoeconomic analysis of a renewable polygeneration system and viability study for small isolated communities. Energy 92: 290–307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.03.056 doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2015.03.056
    [54] Calise F, Cipollina A, d'Accadia MD, et al. (2014) A novel renewable polygeneration system for a small Mediterranean volcanic island for the combined production of energy and water: Dynamic simulation and economic assessment. Appl Energy 135: 675–693. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.03.064 doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.03.064
    [55] Alhaj M, Tahir F, Al-Ghamdi SG (2022) Life-cycle environmental assessment of solar-driven Multi-Effect Desalination (MED) plant. Desalination 524: 115451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2021.115451 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2021.115451
    [56] Liu X, Chen W, Gu M, et al. (2013) Thermal and economic analyses of solar desalination system with evacuated tube collectors. Sol Energy 93: 144–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2013.03.009 doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2013.03.009
    [57] Qasem NA, Lawal DU, Aljundi IH, et al. (2022). Novel integration of a parallel-multistage direct contact membrane distillation plant with a double-effect absorption refrigeration system. Appl Energy 323: 119572. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119572 doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2022.119572
    [58] Drioli E, Ali A, Macedonio F (2015) Membrane distillation: Recent developments and perspectives. Desalination 356: 56–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.10.028 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2014.10.028
    [59] Banat F, Jumah R, Garaibeh M (2002) Exploitation of solar energy collected by solar stills for desalination by membrane distillation. Renewable Energy 25: 293–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-1481(01)00058-1 doi: 10.1016/S0960-1481(01)00058-1
    [60] Thomas N, Mavukkandy MO, Loutatidou S, et al. (2017). Membrane distillation research & implementation: Lessons from the past five decades. Sep Purif Technol 189: 108–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2017.07.069 doi: 10.1016/j.seppur.2017.07.069
    [61] Banat F, Jwaied N, Rommel M, et al. (2007) Desalination by a "compact SMADES" autonomous solarpowered membrane distillation unit. Desalination 217: 29–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2006.11.028 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2006.11.028
    [62] Chafidz A, Al-Zahrani S, Al-Otaibi MN, et al. (2014) Portable and integrated solar-driven desalination system using membrane distillation for arid remote areas in Saudi Arabia. Desalination 345: 36–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.04.017 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2014.04.017
    [63] Guillén-Burrieza E, Zaragoza G, Miralles-Cuevas S, et al. (2012) Experimental evaluation of two pilot-scale membrane distillation modules used for solar desalination. J Membr Sci 409: 264–275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2012.03.063 doi: 10.1016/j.memsci.2012.03.063
    [64] Shafieian A, Azhar MR, Khiadani M, et al. (2020) Performance improvement of thermal-driven membrane-based solar desalination systems using nanofluid in the feed stream. Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 39: 100715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2020.100715 doi: 10.1016/j.seta.2020.100715
    [65] Shafieian Dastjerdi A (2020) A solar‐driven membrane‐based water desalination/purification system. Available from: https://ro.ecu.edu.au/theses/2323.
    [66] Ullah R, Khraisheh M, Esteves RJ, et al. (2018) Energy efficiency of direct contact membrane distillation. Desalination 433: 56–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2018.01.025 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2018.01.025
    [67] González D, Amigo J, Suárez F (2017) Membrane distillation: Perspectives for sustainable and improved desalination. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 80: 238–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.078 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.078
    [68] Myyas REN, Al-Dabbasa M, Tostado-Véliz M, et al. (2022) A novel solar panel cleaning mechanism to improve performance and harvesting rainwater. Sol Energy 237: 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.078 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2017.05.078
    [69] Porrazzo R, Cipollina A, Galluzzo M, et al. (2013) A neural network-based optimizing control system for a seawater-desalination solar-powered membrane distillation unit. Comput Chem Eng 54: 79–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compchemeng.2013.03.015 doi: 10.1016/j.compchemeng.2013.03.015
    [70] Lee JG, Kim WS, Choi JS, et al. (2018) Dynamic solar-powered multi-stage direct contact membrane distillation system: Concept design, modeling and simulation. Desalination 435: 278–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2017.04.008 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2017.04.008
    [71] Khalifa A, Ahmad H, Antar M, et al. (2017) Experimental and theoretical investigations on water desalination using direct contact membrane distillation. Desalination 404: 22–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2016.10.009 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2016.10.009
    [72] Elzahaby AM, Kabeel AE, Bassuoni MM, et al. (2016) Direct contact membrane water distillation assisted with solar energy. Energy Convers Manage 110: 397–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2015.12.046 doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2015.12.046
    [73] Zuo G, Wang R, Field R, et al. (2011) Energy efficiency evaluation and economic analyses of direct contact membrane distillation system using Aspen Plus. Desalination 283: 237–244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2011.04.048 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2011.04.048
    [74] Ahmed FE, Lalia BS, Hashaikeh R, et al. (2020) Alternative heating techniques in membrane distillation: A review. Desalination 496: 114713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114713 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2020.114713
    [75] Nakoa K, Rahaoui K, Date A, et al. (2016) Sustainable zero liquid discharge desalination (SZLDD). Sol Energy 135: 337–347. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.05.047 doi: 10.1016/j.solener.2016.05.047
    [76] Shafieian A, Khiadani M (2019) A novel solar-driven direct contact membrane-based water desalination system. Energy Convers Manage 199: 112055. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2019.112055 doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2019.112055
    [77] Bouguecha ST, Aly SE, Al-Beirutty MH, et al. (2015) Solar driven DCMD: Performance evaluation and thermal energy efficiency. Chem Eng Res Des 100: 331–340. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cherd.2015.05.044 doi: 10.1016/j.cherd.2015.05.044
    [78] Huang J, Hu Y, Bai Y, et al. (2020) Novel solar membrane distillation enabled by a PDMS/CNT/PVDF membrane with localized heating. Desalination 489: 114529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114529 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2020.114529
    [79] Ma Q, Ahmadi A, Cabassud C (2018) Direct integration of a vacuum membrane distillation module within a solar collector for small-scale units adapted to seawater desalination in remote places: Design, modeling & evaluation of a flat-plate equipment. J Membr Sci 564: 617–633. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2018.07.067 doi: 10.1016/j.memsci.2018.07.067
    [80] Kim YD, Thu K, Ghaffour N, et al. (2013) Performance investigation of a solar-assisted direct contact membrane distillation system. J Membr Sci 427: 345–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2012.10.008 doi: 10.1016/j.memsci.2012.10.008
    [81] Tlili I, Sajadi SM, Baleanu D, et al. (2022) Flat sheet direct contact membrane distillation study to decrease the energy demand for solar desalination purposes. Sustainable Energy Technol Assess 52: 102100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2022.102100 doi: 10.1016/j.seta.2022.102100
    [82] Krnac A, Araiz M, Rana S, et al. (2019) Investigation of direct contact membrane distillation coupling with a concentrated photovoltaic solar system. Energy Procedia 160: 246–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2019.02.143 doi: 10.1016/j.egypro.2019.02.143
    [83] Laqbaqbi M, García-Payo MC, Khayet M, et al. (2019) Application of direct contact membrane distillation for textile wastewater treatment and fouling study. Sep Purif Technol 209: 815–825. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2018.09.031 doi: 10.1016/j.seppur.2018.09.031
    [84] Kumar L, Hasanuzzaman M, Rahim NA (2019) Global advancement of solar thermal energy technologies for industrial process heat and its future prospects: A review. Energy Convers Manage 195: 885–908. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2019.05.081 doi: 10.1016/j.enconman.2019.05.081
    [85] Moravej M, Saffarian MR, Li LK, et al. (2020) Experimental investigation of circular flat-panel collector performance with spiral pipes. J Therm Anal Calorim 140: 1229–1236. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-019-08879-1 doi: 10.1007/s10973-019-08879-1
    [86] Kumar L, Hasanuzzaman M, Rahim NA, et al. (2021) Modeling, simulation and outdoor experimental performance analysis of a solar-assisted process heating system for industrial process heat. Renewable Energy 164: 656–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.09.062 doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2020.09.062
    [87] Dongare PD, Alabastri A, Pedersen S, et al. (2017) Nanophotonics-enabled solar membrane distillation for off-grid water purification. Proc Natl Acad Sci 114: 6936–6941. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1701835114 doi: 10.1073/pnas.1701835114
    [88] Eykens L, De Sitter K, Dotremont C, et al. (2017) Wetting resistance of commercial membrane distillation membranes in waste streams containing surfactants and oil. Appl Sci 7: 118. https://doi.org/10.3390/app7020118 doi: 10.3390/app7020118
    [89] Li C, Li X, Du X, et al. (2020) Elucidating the trade-off between membrane wetting resistance and water vapor flux in membrane distillation. Environ Sci Technol 54: 10333–10341. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c02547 doi: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02547
    [90] Xie B, Xu G, Jia Y, et al. (2021) Engineering carbon nanotubes enhanced hydrophobic membranes with high performance in membrane distillation by spray coating. J Membr Sci 625: 118978. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118978 doi: 10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118978
    [91] Li J, Ren LF, Zhou HS, et al. (2021) Fabrication of superhydrophobic PDTS-ZnO-PVDF membrane and its anti-wetting analysis in direct contact membrane distillation (DCMD) applications. J Membr Sci 620: 118924. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118924 doi: 10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118924
    [92] Zou L, Zhang X, Gusnawan P, et al. (2021) Crosslinked PVDF based hydrophilic-hydrophobic dual-layer hollow fiber membranes for direct contact membrane distillation desalination: from the seawater to oilfield produced water. J Membr Sci 619: 118802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118802 doi: 10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118802
    [93] Yin Y, Jeong N, Tong T (2020) The effects of membrane surface wettability on pore wetting and scaling reversibility associated with mineral scaling in membrane distillation. J Membr Sci 614: 118503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118503 doi: 10.1016/j.memsci.2020.118503
    [94] Martínez‐Díez L, Vázquez‐Gonzàlez MI (1996) Temperature polarization in mass transport through hydrophobic porous membranes. AIChE J 42: 1844–1852. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.690420706 doi: 10.1002/aic.690420706
    [95] Wang P (2018) Emerging investigator series: the rise of nano-enabled photothermal materials for water evaporation and clean water production by sunlight. Environ Sci: Nano 5: 1078–1089. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8EN00156A doi: 10.1039/C8EN00156A
    [96] Wang Z, Horseman T, Straub AP, et al. (2019). Pathways and challenges for efficient solar-thermal desalination. Sci Adv 5: eaax0763. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax0763 doi: 10.1126/sciadv.aax0763
    [97] Lotfy HR, Staš J, Roubík H (2022) Renewable energy powered membrane desalination—review of recent development. Environ Sci Pollut Res 29: 46552–46568. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20480-y doi: 10.1007/s11356-022-20480-y
    [98] Ang WL, Mohammad AW, Johnson D, et al. (2019) Forward osmosis research trends in desalination and wastewater treatment: A review of research trends over the past decade. J Water Process Eng 31: 100886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2019.100886 doi: 10.1016/j.jwpe.2019.100886
    [99] Khan MA, Rehman S, Al-Sulaiman FA (2018) A hybrid renewable energy system as a potential energy source for water desalination using reverse osmosis: A review. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev 97: 456–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.08.049 doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2018.08.049
    [100] Ranganathan S (2017) Final Scientific/Technical Report for Program Title: Solar Powered Dewvaporation Desalination System (No. DOE-PTI-15837). Polestar Technologies Inc., Needham Heights, MA (United States). Available from: https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1347924-final-scientific-technical-report-program-title-solar-powered-dewvaporation-desalination-system.
    [101] Hamieh BM, Beckman JR (2006) Seawater desalination using dewvaporation technique: Experimental and enhancement work with economic analysis. Desalination 195: 14–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2005.09.035 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2005.09.035
    [102] Yao M, Tijing LD, Naidu G, et al. (2020) A review of membrane wettability for the treatment of saline water deploying membrane distillation. Desalination 479: 114312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114312 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2020.114312
    [103] Cornejo PK, Santana MV, Hokanson DR, et al. (2014) Carbon footprint of water reuse and desalination: A review of greenhouse gas emissions and estimation tools. J Water Reuse Desalination 4: 238–252. https://doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2014.058 doi: 10.2166/wrd.2014.058
  • This article has been cited by:

    1. Zhiguo Qu, Yiming Huang, Min Zheng, A novel coherence-based quantum steganalysis protocol, 2020, 19, 1570-0755, 10.1007/s11128-020-02868-2
  • Reader Comments
  • © 2023 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)
通讯作者: 陈斌, bchen63@163.com
  • 1. 

    沈阳化工大学材料科学与工程学院 沈阳 110142

  1. 本站搜索
  2. 百度学术搜索
  3. 万方数据库搜索
  4. CNKI搜索

Metrics

Article views(4403) PDF downloads(455) Cited by(8)

Figures and Tables

Figures(11)

/

DownLoad:  Full-Size Img  PowerPoint
Return
Return

Catalog