
Citation: Leonid A. Kaledin, Fred Tepper, Yuly Vesga, Tatiana G. Kaledin. The effect of the surface roughness and ageing characteristics of boehmite on the removal of biological particles from aqueous solution[J]. AIMS Materials Science, 2019, 6(4): 498-508. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2019.4.498
[1] | Leonid A. Kaledin, Fred Tepper, Tatiana G. Kaledin . Electrokinetic aspects of water filtration by AlOOH-coated siliceous particles with nanoscale roughness. AIMS Materials Science, 2017, 4(2): 470-486. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2017.2.470 |
[2] | Jiyu Cai, Qian Sun, Xiangbo Meng . Novel nanostructured materials by atomic and molecular layer deposition. AIMS Materials Science, 2018, 5(5): 957-999. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2018.5.957 |
[3] | Francesco Parrinello, Giuseppe Marannano . Cohesive delamination and frictional contact on joining surface via XFEM. AIMS Materials Science, 2018, 5(1): 127-144. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2018.1.127 |
[4] | Yuan Guo, Xiong (Bill) Yu . Characterizing the surface charge of clay minerals with Atomic Force Microscope (AFM). AIMS Materials Science, 2017, 4(3): 582-593. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2017.3.582 |
[5] | Mark A. Atwater, Kris A. Darling, Mark A. Tschopp . Synthesis, characterization and quantitative analysis of porous metal microstructures: Application to microporous copper produced by solid state foaming. AIMS Materials Science, 2016, 3(2): 573-590. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2016.2.573 |
[6] | Thomas Debesay, Sam-Shajing Sun, Messaoud Bahoura . Multi-functional organic field effect transistor based on a dual doped P3HT. AIMS Materials Science, 2021, 8(5): 823-835. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2021050 |
[7] | Ravinder Kataria, Jatinder Kumar, B. S. Pabla . Experimental investigation of surface quality in ultrasonic machining of WC-Co composites through Taguchi method. AIMS Materials Science, 2016, 3(3): 1222-1235. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2016.3.1222 |
[8] | Anna Godymchuk, Alexey Ilyashenko, Yury Konyukhov, Peter Ogbuna Offor, Galiya Baisalova . Agglomeration and dissolution of iron oxide nanoparticles in simplest biological media. AIMS Materials Science, 2022, 9(4): 642-652. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2022039 |
[9] | Alexandre Lavrov, Kamila Gawel, Malin Torsæter . Manipulating cement-steel interface by means of electric field: Experiment and potential applications. AIMS Materials Science, 2016, 3(3): 1199-1207. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2016.3.1199 |
[10] | Huazhuo Liang, Jiabin Lu, Qiusheng Yan . Catalysts based on Fenton reaction for SiC wafer in chemical magnetorheological finishing. AIMS Materials Science, 2018, 5(6): 1112-1123. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2018.6.1112 |
Coating sand and diatomaceous earth particles with aluminum oxyhydroxide changes the zeta potential of filtration media from negative to positive in a pH range from 3 to 11 [1] due to the fact that it modifies the surface properties of the filter media by coating it with an electropositive material [2,3,4,5,6,7]. As an alternative, aluminum hydroxides have been used for treatment of water to reverse the surface charge on microorganisms, facilitating their coagulation and flocculation [8]. For this reason, media such as coated sand and diatomaceous earth have been showed to improve removal efficacy of submicron particles, i.e., viruses and bacteria [1,2,3,4,5,6,7]. In spite of some success in describing better removal efficacy of submicron particles by electropositive media, a fundamental understanding of why deposition is improved to a greater degree in some coatings is missing [4].
The role of the electrical double layer (EDL) and van der Waals forces in particle deposition is often viewed in terms of Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory [9,10], which was developed for smooth, homogeneous particles with ideal geometries and with no DL overlap. The influence of surface roughness of filter media on streaming potential measurements is well documented [11]. The samples made from the same material with different surface roughness, measured by the same method, in the same device showed zeta potential values significantly different from each other, while the isoelectric point (IEP) values were identical between the measurements [11]. Moreover, the velocity profiles for two different spots along the surface of a multifilament fabric showed circulation pattern between two yarns during the streaming potential measurement. The general impact of roughness is to amplify the long-range behaviour of noncontact DLVO forces with the approximate amplification factor of exponential force between rough and smooth surfaces (σroughness2/λDebye2), where σroughness is the mean roughness [12]. Furthermore, the influence of particle shape and particle size on the zeta potential of colloidal suspensions is well known for the case of ultrapure silica powders where the authors found that the maximum zeta potential occurs for particle size ranging between 100 nm and 1 µm [13].
A variety of analytical and numerical models have been developed to describe the pressure-driven flow over heterogeneous surfaces. The vast majority of these models assume that the local EDL field is independent of the flow field [14,15,16,17]. However, for pressure-driven flow over a surface with heterogeneous patches, the local EDL fields are not uniform. This means that they are more different above a patch than in the region between the patches. This irregularity produces distortions in the equilibrium electrostatic field. Consequently, the electrostatic potential can alter the value of the zeta potential from its expected value over a surface with uniformly smeared surface under conditions of moderate surface charge [18,19,20,21]. The characteristic symptom of field distortion is the generation of flow velocities in all three coordinate directions, including a circulation pattern perpendicular to the main flow axis.
One of the purposes of this paper is to investigate the effect of nanoscale surface roughness on filtration of micron and sub-micron biological particles from aqueous solution by 2D and 1D γ-AlOOH-coated siliceous and cellulosic particles associated with pressure-driven flow through a 3-mm deep precoat and through a non-woven filter media [5,6,7]. The other one is to present the great ageing characteristics of the 2D and 1D γ-AlOOH crystallites, which showed no degradation in performance (i.e., TEM and XRD patterns, particle size distribution, etc.) over periods of seven and fourteen years, respectively. This is a very important finding since a large-scale manufacturing of siliceous and cellulosic substrates coated with 2D and 1D arrays are being proposed. The 1D filter media is manufactured and sold as non-woven media by Ahlstrom Filtration LLC under the tradename Disruptor™. The 2D filter aid media is manufactured by Argonide Corporation in large scale processes.
Synthesis of 2D quantum-sized and 1D nanometer-sized γ-AlOOH crystals adhered to siliceous and cellulosic substrates with BET (Brunauer, Emmett, Teller) specific surface area from 3 to 80 m2/g was accomplished via a reaction of aluminum powder with alkaline water [5,6,7]:
(1) |
The step-by step descriptions of the 2D quantum-sized γ-AlOOH crystals synthesis adhered to siliceous substrate were initially reported in reference [7]. The siliceous powder, in form of diatomaceous earth was dispersed in 4 liters of RO water and allowed to react with 17.5 g of micron size aluminum powders in the presence of 40 mL of 10 M NaOH at ambient pressure. It was heated to boiling point while mixing with an air-driven mixer at 300 rpm. Then, the suspension was cooled down to 40–50 ℃ and neutralized to pH 6–8 with 10% sulfuric acid. Decantation was allowed. Then, it was dried overnight at 100 ℃. Finally, the media was crushed and sieved through a 170-mesh sieve. The synthesis of one-dimensional (1D) nanometer-sized γ-AlOOH atomic crystals adhered to siliceous and cellulosic substrates was accomplished via the same Eq 1 of aluminum powder with alkaline water [5]. Amounts of 0.5 g of aluminum metal powder and 1.5 g of amorphous borosilicate glass microfiber with average diameter of 0.6 μm were dispersed in 0.5 L liter of RO water and were reacted in a 1 L stainless steel pot in the presence of 1 mL of 10 M NaOH at ambient pressure. The suspension was heated to its boiling point at ambient pressure while mixing with an air-driven mixer equipped with 5 cm diameter impeller at 300 rpm. The suspension was cooled down to 40–50 ℃, neutralized with 10% sulfuric acid to pH 6–8. The non-woven paper-like mat was formed by conventional wet-laid paper making technology. Nitrogen BET specific surface area of dry sample of γ-AlOOH nanofibers 2.7 ± 0.5 nm in diameter and 250 ± 50 nm long (Figure 1a) was = 475 m2/g [5]. Nitrogen BET surface area of dry samples of microglass fibers with an average diameter of 0.6 μm [5] (see Figure 1c) increased by approximately 50 times from = 3 m2/g to = 150–200 m2/g and in the case of lyocell cellulosic fibers [6] (see Figure 1b) the BET value increased by a factor of two from estimated value of = 80 m2/g to estimated value of = 150–200 m2/g. This suggests formation of additional surfaces on the substrates as seen in Figure 1b, c.
The TEM images (Figure 1a, c) were recorded on the JEOL JEM2010 TEM at 200 kV accelerating voltage. The high resolution TEM (HRTEM) images (Figure 1d) were recorded on the Tecnai F30 at 300 kV accelerating voltage.
Representative samples of 2D and 1D materials obtained by the procedures described previously [5,6,7] were investigated further by TEM and HRTEM. In Figure 1a, γ-AlOOH nanofibers 2.7 ± 0.5 nm in diameter and 250 ± 50 nm long are presented. Figure 1b, c shows examples of the TEM images of the 1D γ-AlOOH crystallites, 2–3 nm in diameter and approximately l = 250 nm long that are electroadhesively grafted via van der Waals (VDW)-type interlayer bonds to a 50 nm diameter cellulosic lyocell nanofiber and to a 0.6 μm glass microfiber, respectively [6]. Figure 1d shows an example of the atomic-resolution HRTEM image of 2D γ-AlOOH crystallites grafted via VDW type interlayer bonds to a 5 μm diameter diatomaceous earth (DE) particle. Thickness of the 2D γ-AlOOH crystallites was estimated to be in the range from 1 to 5 nm based on a HRTEM image of the DE particle edge (Figure 1d).
Figure 2 shows a sketch of the 2D γ-AlOOH crystallites deposited onto siliceous substrate. When the lateral dimensions of 2D structures are approximated by a circle, they are 7–10 times greater than the boehmite a–c unit cell dimensions. This is consistent with boehmite crystal growth, which occurs mainly along the a–c plane where atomic in-plane bonds are stronger than the weak, VDW type, interlayer bonds along the b-axis [22]. Assuming that the crystals seen in Figure 1d are fully dense γ-AlOOH cylinders (Figure 2) with diameter (d), length (l), silica surface fraction coverage (θ) with nitrogen BET specific surface area values of = 51 m2/g and = 69 m2/g, the ratio l/d = 1.2 ± 0.7 translates into l = 3 ± 2 nm. This implies that the average height (length l) of the 2D γ-AlOOH crystals seen in Figure 1d is comparable to the boehmite cell dimension b = 12 Å [22].
It was found that aluminized 2D and 1D γ-AlOOH /siliceous particles are highly electropositive in aqueous solution with zeta potential ζ ≥ 40 mV [23] at γ-AlOOH loading greater than 15 weight percent (wt%) as compared to the highly electronegative character of the bare siliceous substrates (ζ ≤ —70 mV, Figure 3). The point of zero charge (PZC) of aluminized γ-AlOOH siliceous particles was determined to be 11.6 ± 0.2 for 1D and 11.4 ± 0.2 for 2D structures, respectively [23]. This is three pH units higher as compare to the flat crystalline γ-AlOOH surface. Borghi et al. [24] observed a remarkable reduction by several pH units of the isoelectric point (IEP) on rough nanostructured surfaces, with respect to flat crystalline rutile TiO2. In order to explain the observed behavior of IEP, Borghi et al. [24] considered the roughness-induced self-overlap of the electrical double layers as a potential source of deviation from the trend expected for flat surfaces. Contrary to the acidic behavior of nanostructured surfaces crystalline rutile (Lewis acid sites), aluminized surfaces of siliceous particles with quantum size 2D and 1D γ-AlOOH behave preferentially as basic loci [23].
Table 1 shows initial removal efficacy of biological particles from aqueous solution associated with pressure-driven flow through micrometer size pores of either 2D γ-AlOOH/DE particles packed into a 3-mm deep precoat [25] or through a 1D γ-AlOOH/microglass non-woven filter media [5,6]. A striking feature of Table 1 is that 2D and 1D structures result in a high removal efficacy (in all cases greater than 99.9%) of biological particles regardless of zeta potential value in the range from 15 mV to 56 mV. Estimations show that Brownian displacement does not play significant role in removal efficacy of submicron size RT bacteria in a 3-mm deep γ-AlOOH/DE precoat with mean flow pore size of dmean-flow = 24 ± 4 μm for aluminized DE with average particle size of 80 μm [1]. When the Stokes-Einstein equation [26] is applied to a spherical particle suspended in water, it produces an estimated root-mean-square displacement during a contact time of 4.5 s in a 3-mm deep precoat of only 1.8 μm in the case of RT bacteria. Furthermore, the electrostatic attraction should not play significant role due to highly efficient shielding by the EDL layer with Debye length as short as 1.6 Å in the case of RT suspension in the 3.4 M NaCl electrolyte (Table 1). Anisotropic characteristics of EDL layer have been observed in numerous material systems. Charging behavior of the EDL layer has been studied for various metal oxide/hydroxide surfaces in aqueous solutions [24,27,28,29]. Van Olphen has shown a pH-dependent charge at the edges and faces of kaolinite platelets [30] and concluded that the double-layer structure is complicated by the fact that two crystallographically different surfaces are carrying a different type of double layers that under certain condition can have opposite signs. Recent measurements of the EDL properties of CaF2 [27], α-Al2O3 (Sapphire) [28], TiO2 (Rutile) [24,29] indicated significant differences (up to 2 pH units) between the isoelectric points in various crystallographic orientations of surfaces.
Material | Zeta potential (mV) | pH | Electrolyte ionic strength (mM) | λDa (nm) | RT removal efficacy (LRV) | MS2 removal efficacy (LRV) |
γ-AlOOH/glassb | 47 ± 9 | 7.0 | 0.002(1) | 215 | > 7.0 | 5.1 |
γ-AlOOH/DEc | 56 ± 9 | > 7.0 | 6.3 | |||
γ-AlOOH/glassb | 47 ± 9 | 3400 | 0.16 | 7.7d | 3.8d | |
γ-AlOOH/DEc | 56 ± 9 | > 7.1 | 5.3 | |||
γ-AlOOH/glassb | 23 ± 6 | 10.5 | 0.33(3)e | 17 | > 6.9 | 7.4 |
γ-AlOOH/DEc | 15 ± 3 | > 4.5 | 3.1 | |||
γ-AlOOH/glassb | 23 ± 6 | 3400 | 0.16 | 7.7d | 3.8d | |
γ-AlOOH/DEc | 15 ± 3 | 5.5 | 4.0 | |||
*Note: (a) For NaCl electrolyte with bulk concentration at T = 25 ℃ the Debye length equals to (in nm) where is the concentration of the salt, in mol/dm3, (b) non-woven γ-AlOOH media, (c) 3-mm γ-AlOOH/DE precoat, (d) by 2 layers of non-woven γ-AlOOH media and (e) elevated due to pH adjustment with NaOH. |
In this section, we will discuss the 3D flow structure associated with pressure-driven flow through micrometer size pores of a mixture of equal but opposite charged particles packed into a 3-mm deep precoat [25]. The surfaces of DE and aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE have similar but opposite values of zeta potentials (Figure 3). In such a case, there is an excess of positive ions over the DE surface, but negative ions dominate over the aluminized DE surface to balance out the positive surface charge. The difference in the surface potential results in an electrostatic potential gradient within the local electrical double layer (EDL) fields near the transition zone between the two regions. The presence of this potential gradient results in a body force on the microbes and/or ions in the double layer; however, in this case, an opposite body force is applied to the negative ions over the positively charged particle. As a result, the net body force over the region is zero and the circulation velocity perpendicular to the main flow becomes negligible [18,19,20,21]. The aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE and DE particles have equal average size of d = 80 ± 3 μm. It was assumed to be packed in simple cubic cell with particles only at the corners as seen in Figure 4a, b. DE particles were mixed with aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE particles with DE content in the mix of 10-, 25-, 50-, and 75-wt% and formed a 3-mm deep precoats (Δthickness = 3 mm). Assuming a simple cubic cell packing, the number of layers is estimated as Nlayers = Δthickness/daverage ~38.
Table 2 shows removal efficacy of MS2 bacteriophages and RT bacteria by a 3 mm precoats of aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE80 and DE80 mix at a flow velocity of 0.67 mm/s, neutral pH 7 and ionic strength of 2 ± 1 μM. The mean flow pore diameter of the precoat layer was determined to be 24 ± 5 μm [1]. Results in Table 2 provides experimental evidence of a behavior when a 3 mm precoat is losing adsorption properties of the aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE tested in the same configuration at much faster rate than one can expect based on the weight fraction of DE in the mix. For example, for a 50/50-wt% mix one can expect a reduction in adsorption efficacy by a factor of two or by log10(1/2) = —0.3 based on weight percent of the aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE fraction in the mix while experimental reductions are 3.5 ± 1.0 LRV for MS2 and greater than 4.7 LRV for RT bacteria (Table 2). This is consistent with the case when at least one of the neighboring particles on the side of the cube perpendicular to the flow direction has opposite sign of the surface charge, i.e., —|σ2| for DE than the other neighboring particles, i.e., +|σ1| for aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE ceasing the circulation pattern in that pore involving four neighboring particles. That is, one DE particle is cancelling out high removal efficacy of three aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE particles situated on the same side of the cube perpendicular to the flow direction (Figure 4b).
DE in aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE and DE mix precoat (%) | Average number of layers formed by four neighboring aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE particles | Average layer thickness formed by four neighboring aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE particles (mm) | MS2 removal efficacy (LRV) | RT removal efficacy (LRV) |
0 | 38 | 3.00 | 6.1 ± 0.1 | > 7.7 |
10 | 29 | 2.28 | 5.1 ± 0.2 | 6.7 ± 0.5 |
25 | 13 | 1.02 | 3.6 ± 0.4 | 3.9 ± 0.3 |
50 | 5 | 0.38 | 2.6 ± 0.9 | 3.0 ± 0.3 |
75 | 1 | 0.11 | 1.0 ± 0.2 | 2.2 ± 0.1 |
100 | 0 | 0.00 | 0.5 ± 0.1 | 0.7 ± 0.2 |
The average number of layers in a pore formed by a group of four aluminized DE particles with no DE particle in the group decreased rapidly as DE loadings in the mix increases. Table 2 presents average number of layers in a pore formed by a group of four aluminized DE particles with no DE particle in the group together with the average layer thickness in the 3-mm precoat formed by four neighboring aluminized DE particles with no DE particle in the group.
Electrokinetic phenomena are typically second-order phenomena, e.g., in streaming current measurements, an applied mechanical force produces an electric current [14]. When treated phenomenologically, the second order phenomena can be treated by irreversible thermodynamics [15]. Classical thermodynamics describes EDL at rest, while in electrokinetics EDL is not at rest although usually the deviations from the equilibrium distribution of charge are disregarded [15].
Figure 4 shows removal efficacy of MS2 bacteriophages and RT bacteria by 3-mm deep precoat of aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE80 and DEAL80 mix as a function of average layer thickness formed by four neighboring aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE particles. Figure 4 also reveals good correlation (coefficient of determination R2 > 0.99) between LRV values of microbial removal efficacy and average layer thickness formed by four neighboring aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE (Table 2):
(2) |
where a is a constant and x0 is the average thickness of aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE layer within a mix that would reduce the initial concentration, Cinitial, by a factor of 10. The thickness of aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE precoat layer that would reduce concentration of biological particles in the water stream by a factor of 10 is equal to x0(MS2) = 0.8 mm for MS2 bacteriophage and x0(RT) = 0.5 mm for RT bacteria.
The main application of the prepared 2D and 1D γ-AlOOH crystallites is as water purification media. Additionally, since we are proposing a low cost and large-scale production of these crystallites, it was important to know their stability throughout the time. For this reason, the removal efficacy of aqueous particles suspended by the prepared 2D and 1D γ-AlOOH crystallites was evaluated after seven and fourteen years, respectively.
From the results presented in Table 3, it was found that the prepared 2D and 1D γ-AlOOH crystallites remain monocrystalline under ambient conditions and no degradation in performance (i.e., TEM and XRD patterns, particle size distribution, etc.) was noticed over periods of several years. Table 3 shows the performance of the media to remove biological particles from aqueous solution after seven to fourteen years of manufacturing. This finding makes the crystallites to be industrially applicable.
Material | Ageing time | RT removal efficacya (LRV) | MS2 removal efficacya (LRV) |
–AlOOH/glass | As produced | > 6.5 | > 7.0 |
Aged for 14 years | > 7.0 | > 7.3 | |
–AlOOH/DEb | As produced | > 7.3 | > 7.0 |
Aged for 7 years | > 7.3 | > 6.2 | |
*Note: (a) average of 5 replicates and (b) DE with average particle size of 18 μm. |
In conclusion, aluminum-water reaction (Eq 1) has successfully been used to produce 2D and 1D quantum-sized γ-AlOOH structures deposited onto siliceous and cellulosic substrates in a one-step process at moderate temperature [5,6,7]. Low cost, large scale manufacturing (several metric tons per year) of siliceous and cellulosic substrates coated with 2D and 1D arrays of γ-AlOOH crystallites was demonstrated. The efficacy for removal of biological particles was improved by increasing the surface roughness of the material. Finally, the prepared 2D and 1D γ-AlOOH crystallites remain monocrystalline under ambient conditions and no degradation in performance (i.e., TEM and XRD patterns, particle size distribution, etc.) was noticed over periods of several years (i.e., seven to fourteen years).
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
[1] |
Kaledin L, Tepper F, Kaledin T (2017) Electrokinetic aspects of water filtration by AlOOH-coated siliceous particles with nanoscale roughness. AIMS Mater Sci 4: 470–486. doi: 10.3934/matersci.2017.2.470
![]() |
[2] | Farrah S, Preston D (1985) Concentration of viruses from water by using cellulose filters modified by in situ precipitation of ferric and aluminum hydroxides. Appl Environ Microb 50: 1502–1504. |
[3] |
Lukasik J, Farrah S, Truesdail S, et al. (1996) Adsorption of microorganisms to sand and diatomaceous earth particles coated with metallic hydroxides. Kona Powder Part J 14: 87–91. doi: 10.14356/kona.1996014
![]() |
[4] |
Truesdail S, Lukasik J, Farrah S, et al. (1998) Analysis of bacterial deposition on metal (hydr)oxide-coated sand filter media. J Colloid Interf Sci 203: 369–378. doi: 10.1006/jcis.1998.5541
![]() |
[5] | Tepper F, Kaledin L (2005) Nanosize electropositive fibrous adsorbent. US Patent 6,838,005. |
[6] | Tepper F, Kaledin L (2008) Drinking water filtration device. US Patent 7,390,343. |
[7] | Kaledin L, Tepper F, Kaledin T (2016) Aluminized silicious powder and water purification device incorporating the same. US Patent 9,309,131. |
[8] | Clesceri L, Greenberg A, Eaton A (1998) Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater, Washington, DC: American Public Health Association. |
[9] |
Derjaguin B, Landau L (1993) Theory of stability of strongly charged lyophobic sols of the adhesion of strongly charge particles in solution electrolytes. Prog Surf Sci 43: 30–59. doi: 10.1016/0079-6816(93)90013-L
![]() |
[10] | Verwey E, Overbeek J (1948) Theory of the Stability of Lyophobic Colloids, Amsterdam: Elsevier. |
[11] |
Schnitzer C, Ripperger S (2008) Influence of surface roughness on streaming potential method. Chem Eng Technol 31: 1696–1700. doi: 10.1002/ceat.200800180
![]() |
[12] |
Parsons D, Walsh R, Craig V (2014) Surface forces: surface roughness in theory and experiment. J Chem Phys 140: 164701. doi: 10.1063/1.4871412
![]() |
[13] | Seeger S, Palm B, Günster J, et al. (2015) On the influence of the particle size on the zeta potential of ultra-pure silica powders. Ber DKG 92: E35–E40. Available from: https://www.tib.eu/en/search/id/tema%3ATEMA20150904226/On-the-Influence-of-the-Par ticle-Size-on-the-Zeta/#documentinfo. |
[14] | Lyklema J (1995) Fundamentals of interface and colloid science. Volume Ⅱ : Solid-Liquid Interfaces, Academic Press. |
[15] | Lyklema J (1991) Fundamentals of interface and colloid science. Volume I: Fundamentals, Academic Press. |
[16] |
Lyklema J (2003) Electrokinetics after Smoluchowski. Colloid Surface A 222: 5–14. doi: 10.1016/S0927-7757(03)00217-6
![]() |
[17] | Hunter R (2001) Foundations of Colloid Science, Oxford: Oxford University Press. |
[18] |
Cohen R, Radke C (1991) Streaming potentials of nonuniformly charged surfaces. J Colloid Interf Sci 141: 338–347. doi: 10.1016/0021-9797(91)90330-B
![]() |
[19] | Li D (2004) Electrokinetics in Microfluidics, Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. |
[20] |
Erickson D, Li D (2002) Microchannel flow with patchwise and periodic surface heterogeneity. Langmuir 18: 8949–8959. doi: 10.1021/la025942r
![]() |
[21] |
Erickson D, Li D (2001) Streaming potential and streaming current methods for characterizing heterogeneous solid surfaces. J Colloid Interf Sci 237: 283–289. doi: 10.1006/jcis.2001.7476
![]() |
[22] |
Bokhimi X, Toledo-Antonio J, Guzman-Castillo M, et al. (2001) Relationship between crystallite size and bond lengths in boehmite. J Solid State Chem 159: 32–40. doi: 10.1006/jssc.2001.9124
![]() |
[23] | Kaledin L, Tepper F, Kaledin T (2016) Pristine point of zero charge (p.p.z.c.) and zeta potentials of boehmite's nanolayer and nanofiber surfaces. Int J Smart Nano Mater 7: 1–21. |
[24] |
Borghi F, Vyas V, Podesta A, et al. (2013) Nanoscale roughness and morphology affect the isoelectric point of titania surfaces. PloS One 8: e68655. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0068655
![]() |
[25] | Argonide Corporation (2015) Preparation of 3-mm deep precoat from 80 μm DE powders. Available from:www.tinyurl.com/my6jmzz. |
[26] | Einstein A (1956) Investigations on the Theory of the Brownian Movement, New York: Dover Publications. |
[27] |
Assemi S, Nalaskowski J, Miller J, et al. (2006) Isoelectric point of fluorite by direct force measurements using atomic force microscopy. Langmuir 22: 1403–1405. doi: 10.1021/la052806o
![]() |
[28] |
Kershner R, Bullard J, Cima M (2004) Zeta potential orientation dependence of sapphire substrates. Langmuir 20: 4101–4108. doi: 10.1021/la036268w
![]() |
[29] |
Bullard J, Cima M (1995) Orientation dependence of the isoelectric point of TiO2 (Rutile) surfaces. J Phys Chem 99: 2114–2118. doi: 10.1021/j100007a048
![]() |
[30] | Van Olphen H (1977) An Introduction to Clay Colloid Chemistry, New York: John Wiley and Sons. |
1. | Leonid A. Kaledin, Fred Tepper, Yuly Vesga, Tatiana G. Kaledin, Boehmite and Akaganeite 1D and 2D Mesostructures: Synthesis, Growth Mechanism, Ageing Characteristics and Surface Nanoscale Roughness Effect on Water Purification, 2019, 2019, 1687-4110, 1, 10.1155/2019/9516156 |
Material | Zeta potential (mV) | pH | Electrolyte ionic strength (mM) | λDa (nm) | RT removal efficacy (LRV) | MS2 removal efficacy (LRV) |
γ-AlOOH/glassb | 47 ± 9 | 7.0 | 0.002(1) | 215 | > 7.0 | 5.1 |
γ-AlOOH/DEc | 56 ± 9 | > 7.0 | 6.3 | |||
γ-AlOOH/glassb | 47 ± 9 | 3400 | 0.16 | 7.7d | 3.8d | |
γ-AlOOH/DEc | 56 ± 9 | > 7.1 | 5.3 | |||
γ-AlOOH/glassb | 23 ± 6 | 10.5 | 0.33(3)e | 17 | > 6.9 | 7.4 |
γ-AlOOH/DEc | 15 ± 3 | > 4.5 | 3.1 | |||
γ-AlOOH/glassb | 23 ± 6 | 3400 | 0.16 | 7.7d | 3.8d | |
γ-AlOOH/DEc | 15 ± 3 | 5.5 | 4.0 | |||
*Note: (a) For NaCl electrolyte with bulk concentration at T = 25 ℃ the Debye length equals to (in nm) where is the concentration of the salt, in mol/dm3, (b) non-woven γ-AlOOH media, (c) 3-mm γ-AlOOH/DE precoat, (d) by 2 layers of non-woven γ-AlOOH media and (e) elevated due to pH adjustment with NaOH. |
DE in aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE and DE mix precoat (%) | Average number of layers formed by four neighboring aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE particles | Average layer thickness formed by four neighboring aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE particles (mm) | MS2 removal efficacy (LRV) | RT removal efficacy (LRV) |
0 | 38 | 3.00 | 6.1 ± 0.1 | > 7.7 |
10 | 29 | 2.28 | 5.1 ± 0.2 | 6.7 ± 0.5 |
25 | 13 | 1.02 | 3.6 ± 0.4 | 3.9 ± 0.3 |
50 | 5 | 0.38 | 2.6 ± 0.9 | 3.0 ± 0.3 |
75 | 1 | 0.11 | 1.0 ± 0.2 | 2.2 ± 0.1 |
100 | 0 | 0.00 | 0.5 ± 0.1 | 0.7 ± 0.2 |
Material | Ageing time | RT removal efficacya (LRV) | MS2 removal efficacya (LRV) |
–AlOOH/glass | As produced | > 6.5 | > 7.0 |
Aged for 14 years | > 7.0 | > 7.3 | |
–AlOOH/DEb | As produced | > 7.3 | > 7.0 |
Aged for 7 years | > 7.3 | > 6.2 | |
*Note: (a) average of 5 replicates and (b) DE with average particle size of 18 μm. |
Material | Zeta potential (mV) | pH | Electrolyte ionic strength (mM) | λDa (nm) | RT removal efficacy (LRV) | MS2 removal efficacy (LRV) |
γ-AlOOH/glassb | 47 ± 9 | 7.0 | 0.002(1) | 215 | > 7.0 | 5.1 |
γ-AlOOH/DEc | 56 ± 9 | > 7.0 | 6.3 | |||
γ-AlOOH/glassb | 47 ± 9 | 3400 | 0.16 | 7.7d | 3.8d | |
γ-AlOOH/DEc | 56 ± 9 | > 7.1 | 5.3 | |||
γ-AlOOH/glassb | 23 ± 6 | 10.5 | 0.33(3)e | 17 | > 6.9 | 7.4 |
γ-AlOOH/DEc | 15 ± 3 | > 4.5 | 3.1 | |||
γ-AlOOH/glassb | 23 ± 6 | 3400 | 0.16 | 7.7d | 3.8d | |
γ-AlOOH/DEc | 15 ± 3 | 5.5 | 4.0 | |||
*Note: (a) For NaCl electrolyte with bulk concentration at T = 25 ℃ the Debye length equals to (in nm) where is the concentration of the salt, in mol/dm3, (b) non-woven γ-AlOOH media, (c) 3-mm γ-AlOOH/DE precoat, (d) by 2 layers of non-woven γ-AlOOH media and (e) elevated due to pH adjustment with NaOH. |
DE in aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE and DE mix precoat (%) | Average number of layers formed by four neighboring aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE particles | Average layer thickness formed by four neighboring aluminized γ-AlOOH/DE particles (mm) | MS2 removal efficacy (LRV) | RT removal efficacy (LRV) |
0 | 38 | 3.00 | 6.1 ± 0.1 | > 7.7 |
10 | 29 | 2.28 | 5.1 ± 0.2 | 6.7 ± 0.5 |
25 | 13 | 1.02 | 3.6 ± 0.4 | 3.9 ± 0.3 |
50 | 5 | 0.38 | 2.6 ± 0.9 | 3.0 ± 0.3 |
75 | 1 | 0.11 | 1.0 ± 0.2 | 2.2 ± 0.1 |
100 | 0 | 0.00 | 0.5 ± 0.1 | 0.7 ± 0.2 |
Material | Ageing time | RT removal efficacya (LRV) | MS2 removal efficacya (LRV) |
–AlOOH/glass | As produced | > 6.5 | > 7.0 |
Aged for 14 years | > 7.0 | > 7.3 | |
–AlOOH/DEb | As produced | > 7.3 | > 7.0 |
Aged for 7 years | > 7.3 | > 6.2 | |
*Note: (a) average of 5 replicates and (b) DE with average particle size of 18 μm. |