An Alternative to Domain-general or Domain-specific Frameworks for Theorizing about Human Evolution and Ontogenesis

Annette Karmiloff-Smith; Annette Karmiloff-Smith

doi:10.3934/Neuroscience.2015.2.91

AIMS Neuroscience

2015, Volume 2, Issue 2: 91-104. doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2015.2.91

Previous Article Next Article

Review

An Alternative to Domain-general or Domain-specific Frameworks for Theorizing about Human Evolution and Ontogenesis

Annette Karmiloff-Smith ^,

Birkbeck Centre for Brain & Cognitive Development, University of London, London WC1N 7HX, UK

Received: 01 January 2015 Accepted: 11 May 2015 Published: 19 June 2015

This paper maintains that neither a domain-general nor a domain-specific framework is appropriate for furthering our understanding of human evolution and ontogenesis. Rather, as we learn increasingly more about the dynamics of gene-environment interaction and gene expression, theorists should consider a third alternative: a domain-relevant approach, which argues that the infant brain comes equipped with biases that are relevant to, but not initially specific to, processing different kinds of input. The hypothesis developed here is that domain-specific core knowledge/specialized functions do not constitute the start state; rather, functional specialization emerges progressively through neuronal competition over developmental time. Thus, the existence of category-specific deficits in brain-damaged adults cannot be used to bolster claims that category-specific or domain-specific modules underpin early development, because neural specificity in the adult brain is likely to have been the emergent property over time of a developing, self-structuring system in interaction with the environment.
- domain-specific,
- domain-general,
- domain-relevant,
- neuroconstructivism,
- emergent structure,
- evolution
Citation: Annette Karmiloff-Smith. An Alternative to Domain-general or Domain-specific Frameworks for Theorizing about Human Evolution and Ontogenesis[J]. AIMS Neuroscience, 2015, 2(2): 91-104. doi: 10.3934/Neuroscience.2015.2.91

Related Papers:

Abstract

This paper maintains that neither a domain-general nor a domain-specific framework is appropriate for furthering our understanding of human evolution and ontogenesis. Rather, as we learn increasingly more about the dynamics of gene-environment interaction and gene expression, theorists should consider a third alternative: a domain-relevant approach, which argues that the infant brain comes equipped with biases that are relevant to, but not initially specific to, processing different kinds of input. The hypothesis developed here is that domain-specific core knowledge/specialized functions do not constitute the start state; rather, functional specialization emerges progressively through neuronal competition over developmental time. Thus, the existence of category-specific deficits in brain-damaged adults cannot be used to bolster claims that category-specific or domain-specific modules underpin early development, because neural specificity in the adult brain is likely to have been the emergent property over time of a developing, self-structuring system in interaction with the environment.

References

[1]	Baillargeon R, Carey S (2012) Core cognition and beyond: The acquisition of physical and numerical knowledge. In S. Pauen (Ed.) Early childhood development and later outcome. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 33-65.
[2]	Carey S (2011) The Origin of Concepts: A Precis. Behav Brain Sci 34: 113-162
[3]	Spelke ES, Kinzler KD (2007) Core knowledge. Dev Sci 10: 89-96. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00569.x
[4]	van der Lely HKJ (2005) Domain-specific cognitive systems: Insight from grammatical specific language impairment. Trends Cog Sci 9: 53-59. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2004.12.002
[5]	Van der Lely JKJ, Pinker S (2014) The biological basis of language: insights from developmental grammatical impairments. Trends Cog Sci 18: 586-595. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2014.07.001
[6]	Elman JL, Bates E, Johnson MH, et al. (1996) Rethinking Innateness: A Connectionist Perspective on Development. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press.
[7]	Kirkham NZ, Slemmer JA, Johnson SP (2002) Visual statistic learning in infancy: evidence for a domain-general learning mechanism. Cognition, 83: B35-B42. doi: 10.1016/S0010-0277(02)00004-5
[8]	Lany J, Saffran JR (2013) Statistical learning mechanisms in infancy. In: Comprehensive Developmental Neuroscience: Neural Circuit Development and Function in the Brain, Volume 3 (Rubenstein JLR, Rakic P, eds). Amsterdam, Elsevier: 231-248.
[9]	Pinker S (2002) The Blank Slate. The modern denial of human nature. New York, NY: Penguin Group.
[10]	Cosmides L, Barrett HC, Tooby J (2010) Adaptative specializations, social exchange, and the evolution of human intelligence. Proc Natl Acad Sci 107: 9007-9014. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0914623107
[11]	Agrillo C, Ranpura A, Butterworth B (2010) Time and numerosity estimation are independent: Behavioral evidence for two different systems using a conflict paradigm. Cog Neurosci 1: 96-101. doi: 10.1080/17588921003632537
[12]	Clahsen H, Temple C (2003) Words and rules in children with Williams syndrome. In: Language competence across populations (Levy Y, Schaeffer J eds). Erlbaum: Mahwah, NJ, 323-352.
[13]	Cohen Kadosh R, Bahrami B, Walsh V, et al. (2011) Specialization in the human brain: The case of numbers. Front Hum Neurosci 5: 62.
[14]	Bates E, Elman J, Johnson MH, Karmiloff-Smith A, et al. (1998) Innateness and Emergentism. In A Companion to Cognitive Science (Bechtel W, Graham G, eds). Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 590-601.
[15]	Karmiloff-Smith A, Plunkett K, Johnson M, et al. (1998) What does it mean to claim that something is ‘innate'? Mind Lang 13: 588-597. doi: 10.1111/1468-0017.00095
[16]	Hyde DC, Spelke ES (2011) Neural signatures of number processing in human infants: Evidence for two core systems underlying numerical cognition. Dev Sci 14: 360-371. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.00987.x
[17]	Lee SA, Spelke ES (2010) A modular geometric mechanism for reorientation in children. Cognitive Psychology 61: 152-176. doi: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2010.04.002
[18]	Spelke ES, Kinzler KD (2007) Core Knowledge. Dev Sci 10: 89-96. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00569.x
[19]	Xu F, Spelke ES, Goddard S (2005) Number sense in human infants. Dev Sci 8: 88-101. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00395.x
[20]	Dehaene S (1997) The number sense: how the mind creates mathematics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
[21]	Butterworth B (1999) The mathematical brain. Macmillan: London.
[22]	Gelman R, Gallistel R (1986) The child's understanding of number. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
[23]	Duchaine B (2000) Developmental propagnosia with normal configural processing. NeuroReport 11: 79-83. doi: 10.1097/00001756-200001170-00016
[24]	Duchaine B, Nakayama K (2005) Dissociations of face and object recognition in developmental prosopagnosia. J Cog Neurosci 17: 249-261. doi: 10.1162/0898929053124857
[25]	Duchaine B, Nakayama K (2006) Developmental prosopagnosia: a window to content-specific face processing. Cur Op Neurobio 16: 166-173. doi: 10.1016/j.conb.2006.03.003
[26]	Duchaine B, Yovel G, Butterworth E, et al. (2006) Prosopagnosia as an impairment to face-specific mechanisms: elimination of the alternative explanations in a developmental case. Cognitive Neuropsychology 23: 714-747. doi: 10.1080/02643290500441296
[27]	Landau B, Hoffman JE, Kurz N (2005) Object definitions with severe spatial deficits in Williams syndrome: sparing and breadkdown. Cognition 100: 483-510.
[28]	Piattelli-Palmarini M (2001) Speaking of learning: How do we acquire our marvellous facility for expressing ourselves in words? Nature 411: 887-888. doi: 10.1038/35082123
[29]	Spelke ES, Kinzler KD (2009) Innateness, learning and rationality. Child Dev Pers 3: 96-98. doi: 10.1111/j.1750-8606.2009.00085.x
[30]	Duchaine B, Cosmides L, Tooby J (2001) Evolutionary psychology and the brain. Curr Op Neurobio 11: 225-230. doi: 10.1016/S0959-4388(00)00201-4
[31]	Hauser MD, Spelke ES (2004). Evolutionary and developmental foundations of human knowledge: A case study of mathematics. In M Gazzaniga (Ed.) The Cognitive Neurosciences, Vol. 3. Cambridge: MIT Press, 853-864.
[32]	Bolhuis JJ, Brown GR, Richardson RC, et al. (2011) Darwin in Mind: New Opportunities for Evolutionary Psychology. PLoS Biology 9: 1-8.
[33]	Baron-Cohen S, Leslie AM, Frith U (1985) Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind”? Cognition 21: 37-46. doi: 10.1016/0010-0277(85)90022-8
[34]	Leslie AM (1992) Pretence, autism, and the theory-of-mind-module. Cur Dir Psych Sci 1: 18-21. doi: 10.1111/1467-8721.ep10767818
[35]	Baron-Cohen S, Ring HA, Wheelwright S, et al. (1999) Social intelligence in the normal and autistic brain: an fMRI study. Eur J Neurosci 11: 1891-8. doi: 10.1046/j.1460-9568.1999.00621.x
[36]	Temple CM (1997) Cognitive neuropsychology and its application to children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 38: 27-52. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01504.x
[37]	Butterworth B (2008) State-of-science review: Dyscalculia. In Goswami UC (Ed.) Foresight Mental Capital and Mental Wellbeing. Office of Science and Innovation, London.
[38]	Duchaine B, Nieminen-von Wendt T, New J, et al. (2003) Dissociations of visual recognition in a developmental agnosic: evidence for separate developmental processes. Neurocase 9: 380-389. doi: 10.1076/neur.9.5.380.16556
[39]	Molko N, Cachia A, Rivière D, et al. (2003) Functional and Structural Alterations of the Intraparietal Sulcus in a Developmental Dyscalculia of Genetic Origin. Neuron 40: 847-858. doi: 10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00670-6
[40]	Rice M (1999) Specific grammatical limitations in children with Specific Language Impairment. In: Neurodevelopmental disorders (Tager-Flusberg H, ed). Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 331-360.
[41]	Shalev RS, Manor O, Gross-Tsur V (2005) Developmental dyscalculia: a prospective six-year follow-up. Dev Med Child Neurol 2: 121-125.
[42]	Castle A, Coltheart M (1993) Varieties of developmental dyslexia. Cognition 47: 149-180. doi: 10.1016/0010-0277(93)90003-E
[43]	Gopnik M (1990) Genetic basis of grammar defect. Nature 347: 26-26.
[44]	Karmiloff-Smith A (1992) Beyond Modularity: A Developmental Perspective on Cognitive Science. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press/Bradford Books.
[45]	Karmiloff-Smith A (1998) Development itself is the key to understanding developmental disorders. Trends Cog Sci 2: 389-398. doi: 10.1016/S1364-6613(98)01230-3
[46]	Mareschal D, Johnson MH, Sirios S, et al. (2007) Neuroconstructivism: Vol. I. How the brain constructs cognition. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
[47]	Westerman G, Marescal D, Johnson MH, et al. (2007) Neuroconstructivism. Dev Sci 10: 75-83. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00567.x
[48]	Westermann G, Thomas MSC, Karmiloff-Smith A (2010) Neuroconstructivism. In: Handbook of Childhood Development (Goswami U, ed). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 723-748.
[49]	Karmiloff-Smith A (2013) Challenging the use of adult neuropsychological models for explaining neurodevelopmental disorders: Developed versus developing brains. Quart J Exp Psych 66: 1-14. doi: 10.1080/17470218.2012.744424
[50]	Paterson SJ, Brown JH, Gsödl MK, et al. (1999) Cognitive Modularity and Genetic Disorders, Science 286: 2355-2358.
[51]	Johnson MH (2001) Functional brain development in humans. Nat Rev Neurosci 2: 475-483. doi: 10.1038/35081509
[52]	Stiles J (2009) The Fundamentals of Brain Development. Cambridge MA: Havard University Press.
[53]	Thomas MSC, Knowland VC, Karmiloff-Smith A (2011) Mechanisms of developmental regression in autism and the broader phenotype: a neural network modeling approach. Psych Rev 118: 637-654. doi: 10.1037/a0025234
[54]	Casey BJ, Giedd JN, Thomas KM (2000) Structural and functional brain development and its relation to cognitive development. Biol Psychol 54: 241-257. doi: 10.1016/S0301-0511(00)00058-2
[55]	Huttenlocher PR, de Courten C (1987) The development of synapses in striate cortex of man. Hum Neurobio 6: 1-9.
[56]	Huttenlocher PR, Dabholkar AS (1997) Regional Differences in Synaptogenesis in Human. J Comp Neurol 387: 167-178. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19971020)387:2<167::AID-CNE1>3.0.CO;2-Z
[57]	Giedd J, Blumenthal J, Jeffries N, et al. (1999) Brain development during childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal MRI study. Nat Neurosci 2: 861-863. doi: 10.1038/13158
[58]	Giedd J, Rumsey J, Castellanos F, et al. (1996) A quantitative MRI study of the corpus callosum in children and adolescents. Dev Brain Res 91: 274-280. doi: 10.1016/0165-3806(95)00193-X
[59]	Cohen Kadosh K., Henson RN, Cohen Kadosh R, et al. (2009) Task-dependent activation of face-sensitive cortex: an fMRI adaptation study. J Cog Neurosci, 22: 903-917.
[60]	De Haan M, Humphreys K, Johnson MH (2002) Developing a brain specializes for face processing: A converging methods approach. Dev Psychobiology 40: 200-212. doi: 10.1002/dev.10027
[61]	Krishnan S, Leech R, Mercure E, et al. (2014) Convergent and divergent fMRI responses in children and adults to increasing language production demands. Cereb Cortex pii: bhu120.
[62]	Mills DL, Coffy-Corins S, Neville H (1997) Language comprehension and cerebral specialisation from 13-20 months. Dev Psych 13: 397-445.
[63]	Minagawa-Kawai Y, Mori K, Naoi N, et al. (2007) Neural attunement processes in infants during the acquisition of language-specific phonemic contrasts. J Neurosci 3: 315-321.
[64]	Neville H, Mills D, Bellugi U (1994) Effects of altered auditory sensitivity and age of language acquisition on the development of language-relevant neural systems: Preliminary studies of William syndrome. In: Atypical cognitive deficits in developmental disorders: Implications for brain function (Broman S, Grafman J, eds). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 67-83.
[65]	Stiles J (2012) Neural plasticity and cognitive development: Insights from children with perinatal brain injury. Oxford UK: Oxford University Press.
[66]	Bates E, Roe K (2001) Language development in children with unilateral brain injury. In: Handbook of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience (Nelson CA, Luciana M, eds). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 281-307.
[67]	Casey BJ, Tottenham N, Liston C, et al. (2005) Imaging the developing brain. What have we learned about cognitive development? Trends Cog Sci 9: 104-110.
[68]	Durston S, Davidson MC, Tottenham N, et al. (2006). A shift from diffuse to focal cortical activity with development. Dev Sci 9: 1-8.
[69]	Paterson SJ, Heim S, Friedman JT, et al. (2006) Development of structure and function in the infant brain: Implications for cognition, language and social behaviour. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 30: 1087-1105. doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2006.05.001
[70]	Smith LB, Thelen E (2003) Development as a dynamic system. Trends Cog Sci 7: 343-348. doi: 10.1016/S1364-6613(03)00156-6
[71]	Tyler LK, Shafto MA, Randall B, et al. (2010) Preserving Syntactic Processing across the Adult Life Span: The Modulation of the Frontotemporal Language System in the Context of Age-Related Atrophy. Cereb Cortex 20: 352-364. doi: 10.1093/cercor/bhp105
[72]	Dehaene S, Cohen L (2007) Cultural recycling of cortical maps. Neuron 56: 384-398. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2007.10.004
[73]	Fodor J (1983) Modularity of Mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
[74]	Dehaene S, Charles L, King JR, et al. (2014) Toward a computational theory of conscious processing. Curr Op Neurobio 25: 76-84. doi: 10.1016/j.conb.2013.12.005
[75]	Anderson ML (2010) Neural reuse: A fundamental organizational principle of the brain. Behav Brain Sci 33: 245-313. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X10000853
[76]	Dehaene S (2009) Reading in the brain: The science and evolution of a human invention. New York, NY: Penguin Group
[77]	Goldman-Rakic PS (1987) Circuitry of the pre- frontal cortex and the regulation of behavior by representational knowledge. In: Handbook of Physiology 5 (Plum F, Mountcastle V, eds). Bethesda, MD: American Physiological Society, 373-417.
[78]	Johnson MH (2004) Plasticity and functional brain development: The case of face processing. In: Attention & Performance XX: Functional neuroimaging of visual cognition (Kanwisher N, Duncan J eds). Oxford: Oxford University Press, 257- 263.
[79]	Kuhl P (2004) Early language acquisition: cracking the speech code. Nat Rev Neurosci 5: 831-843. doi: 10.1038/nrn1533
[80]	Majdan M, Schatz CJ (2006) Effects of visual experience on activity-dependent gene regulation in cortex. Nat Neurosci 9: 650-659. doi: 10.1038/nn1674
[81]	Meaney MJ, Szyf M (2005) Maternal care as a model for experience-dependent chromatin plasticity? Trends Neurosci 28: 456-463. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2005.07.006
[82]	Bhattacharya J, Petsche H (2005) Drawing on mind's canvas: Differences in cortical integration patterns between artists and non-artists. Hum Brain Mapping 26: 1-14. doi: 10.1002/hbm.20104
[83]	Crone EA, Elzinga B (2014) Changing brains: How longitudinal fMRI studies can inform us about cognitive and social-affective growth trajectories. WIREs Cogn Sci 6: 53-63.
[84]	Brown TT, Petersen SE, Schlaggar BL (2006) Does human functional brain organization shift from different to focal with development? Dev Sci 9: 9-10. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.00455.x
[85]	Karmiloff-Smith A (1997) Promissory notes, genetic clocks or epigenetic outcomes? Behav Brain Sci 20: 359-377.
[86]	Karmiloff-Smith A (2007) Atypical epigenesis. Dev Sci 10: 84-88. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00568.x
[87]	Kingsbury MA, Finlay LF (2001) The cortex in multidimensional space: where do cortical areas come from? Developmental Science 4: 125-142. doi: 10.1111/1467-7687.00158
[88]	Bishop KM, Goudreau G, O'Leary DDM (2000) Regulation of area identity in the mammalian neocortex by Emx2 and Pax6. Science 288: 344-349. doi: 10.1126/science.288.5464.344
[89]	Kaffman A, Meaney MJ (2007) Neurodevelopmental sequelae of postnatal maternal care in rodents: clinical and research implications of molecular insights. J Child Psychol. Psychiatry 48: 224-244. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01730.x
[90]	Gotlieb, G (2007) Probabilistic epigenesis. Dev Sci 10: 1-11. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00556.x
[91]	Scerif G, Karmiloff-Smith A (2001) Genes and environment: What does interaction really mean? Trends Gen 17: 418-419. doi: 10.1016/S0168-9525(01)02337-X
[92]	Quartz S, Sejnowski T (1997) The neural basis of cognitive development: A constructivist manifesto. Behav Brain Sci 20: 537-596.
[93]	Finlay BL (2007) E pluribus unum: Too many unique human capacities and too many theories. In: The evolution of mind: Fundamental questions and controversies (Gangestad S, Simpson J, eds). New York: Guilford Press, 294-304.
[94]	Karmiloff-Smith A (2010) Neuroimaging of the developing brain: Taking “developing” seriously. Hum Brain Map 31: 934-941. doi: 10.1002/hbm.21074
[95]	Karmiloff-Smith A (2012) Brain: The Neuroconstructivist Approach. In: Neuro- developmental disorders across the lifespan: A neuroconstructivist approach (Farran EK, Karmiloff-Smith A, eds) Oxford: Oxford University Press, 37-58.
[96]	Karmiloff-Smith A, Thomas MSC (2004) Can developmental disorders be used to bolster claims from Evolutionary Psychology? A neuroconstructivist approach. In: Biology and Knowledge Revisited: From Neurogenesis to Psychogenesis (Langer J, Taylor Parker S, Milbrath C, eds) Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 307-322.
[97]	Karmiloff-Smith A (2009) Nativism versus Neuroconstructivism: Rethinking the Study of Developmental Disorders. Interplay of Biology and Environment, Dev Psych 45: 56-63.
[98]	Pinker S (1994) The language instinct: How the mind creates language. New York: W.Morrow.
[99]	Pinker S (1999) Words and rules: The ingredients of language. New York: Basic Books.
[100]	Karmiloff-Smith A, Thomas MSC, Annaz D, et al. (2004) Exploring the Williams Syndrome Face Processing Debate: The importance of building developmental trajectories. J Child Psych Psychiatry 45: 1258-1274. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00322.x
[101]	Karmiloff-Smith A, D'Souza D, Dekker TM, et al. (2012) Genetic and environmental vulnerabilities in children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Proc Natl Acad Sci 109: 17261-5. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1121087109
[102]	D'Souza D, Karmiloff-Smith A (2011) When modularization fails to occur: a developmental perspective. Cog Neuropsych 28: 276-287. doi: 10.1080/02643294.2011.614939
[103]	Mackinlay R, Charman T, Karmiloff-Smith A (2006) High functioning children with autism spectrum disorder: A novel test of multitasking. Brain Cog 61: 14-24. doi: 10.1016/j.bandc.2005.12.006
[104]	Comery TA, Harris JB, Willems PJ, et al. (1997) Abnormal dendritic spines in fragile X knockout mice: Maturation and pruning deficits. Proc Natl Acad Sci 94: 5401-5404. doi: 10.1073/pnas.94.10.5401
[105]	Oliver A, Johnson MH, Karmiloff-Smith A, et al. (2000) Deviations in the emergence of representations: A neuroconstructivist framework for analysing developmental disorders. Dev Sci 3: 1-23. doi: 10.1111/1467-7687.00094
[106]	Karmiloff-Smith A, Scerif G, Ansari D (2003) Double dissociations in developmental disorders? Theoretically misconceived, empirically dubious. Cortex 39: 161-163.
[107]	Johnson MH, Halit H, Grice S, et al. (2002) Neuroimaging of typical and atypical development: A perspective from multiple levels of analysis. Dev Psychopath 14: 521-536.
[108]	Cicchetti D, & Tucker D (1994) Development and self-regulatory structures of the mind. Dev Psychopath 6: 533-549. doi: 10.1017/S0954579400004673
[109]	Sur M, Pallas SL, Roe AW (1990) Crossmodal plasticity in cortical development: Differentiation and specification of sensory neocortex. TINS 13: 227-233.
[110]	Webster MJ, Bachevalier J, Ungerleider LG (1995) Development and plasticity of visual memory circuits. In: Maturational windows and adult cortical plasticity in human development: Is there reason for an optimistic view? (Julesz B, Kovacs I, eds). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
[111]	Bavelier D, Levi DM, Li RW, et al. (2010) Removing brakes on adult plasticity: from molecular to behavioural interventions. J Neurosci 30: 14964-71. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4812-10.2010
[112]	Hensch TK (2005) Critical period plasticity in local cortical circuits. Nat. Rev. Neurosci 6: 877-888.
[113]	Karmiloff-Smith A (1994) Transforming a partially structured brain into a creative mind. Behav Brain Sci 17: 732-745. doi: 10.1017/S0140525X00036906

Reader Comments

Your name:*

Email:*
© 2015 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)