Lignocellulosic biofuels in India: current perspectives, potential issues and future prospects

Pallav Purohit; Subash Dhar; Pallav Purohit; Subash Dhar

doi:10.3934/energy.2018.3.453

AIMS Energy

2018, Volume 6, Issue 3: 453-486. doi: 10.3934/energy.2018.3.453

Previous Article Next Article

Research article Topical Sections

Lignocellulosic biofuels in India: current perspectives, potential issues and future prospects

Pallav Purohit ¹,
Subash Dhar ^{2
,
,}

1.
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Laxenburg, Austria
2.
UNEP DTU Partnership, DTU Management, Technical University Denmark, Denmark

Received: 14 March 2018 Accepted: 25 May 2018 Published: 05 June 2018

With the transportation sector growing considerably and demand for transport fuels rising globally, this study looks at the current and future status and technical/economic potential of lignocellulosic biofuels in India in a business-as-usual (BAU), national policy on biofuel (NPB) and 2 ℃ climate stabilization scenarios. It identifies key challenges in achieving the country’s biofuel targets, and analyses their role in India’s long-term transport scenarios. In this study, we have used ANSWER MARKAL model to assess the economic potential of biofuels obtained through lignocellulosic agricultural residues. The results indicate that the current ethanol and biodiesel availability in India through the first generation biofuel route is not sufficient to meet the country’s biofuel target. On the other hand, lignocellulosic agricultural residues can produce 38 and 51 billion litres of lignocellulosic ethanol/BTL in 2020 and 2030, respectively, which would be sufficient to meet the NPB’s 20 percent blending by 2030. Apart from biofuel availability, we assess the investment requirement for second generation biofuel industry, reduction in carbon dioxide emissions and impact on rural employment in different scenarios.
- ethanol,
- biodiesel,
- transport sector,
- agricultural residues,
- bio-refinery,
- rural employment
Citation: Pallav Purohit, Subash Dhar. Lignocellulosic biofuels in India: current perspectives, potential issues and future prospects[J]. AIMS Energy, 2018, 6(3): 453-486. doi: 10.3934/energy.2018.3.453

Related Papers:

Abstract

With the transportation sector growing considerably and demand for transport fuels rising globally, this study looks at the current and future status and technical/economic potential of lignocellulosic biofuels in India in a business-as-usual (BAU), national policy on biofuel (NPB) and 2 ℃ climate stabilization scenarios. It identifies key challenges in achieving the country’s biofuel targets, and analyses their role in India’s long-term transport scenarios. In this study, we have used ANSWER MARKAL model to assess the economic potential of biofuels obtained through lignocellulosic agricultural residues. The results indicate that the current ethanol and biodiesel availability in India through the first generation biofuel route is not sufficient to meet the country’s biofuel target. On the other hand, lignocellulosic agricultural residues can produce 38 and 51 billion litres of lignocellulosic ethanol/BTL in 2020 and 2030, respectively, which would be sufficient to meet the NPB’s 20 percent blending by 2030. Apart from biofuel availability, we assess the investment requirement for second generation biofuel industry, reduction in carbon dioxide emissions and impact on rural employment in different scenarios.

References

[1]	IPCC (2014) Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Cambridge University Press, New York.
[2]	Creutzig F, Jochem P, Edelenbosch OY, et al. (2015) Transport: A roadblock to climate change mitigation? Science 350: 911–912. doi: 10.1126/science.aac8033
[3]	Choudhary R, Vasudevan V (2017) Study of vehicle ownership for urban and rural households in India. J Transport Geogr 58: 52–58. doi: 10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2016.11.006
[4]	Dhar S, Pathak M, Shukla PR (2017) Electric vehicles and India's low carbon passenger transport: a long-term co-benefits assessment. J Clean Prod 146: 139–148. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.05.111
[5]	Singh A, Gangopadhyay S, Nanda PK, et al. (2008) Trends of greenhouse gas emissions from the road transport sector in India. Science Total Environ 390: 124–131. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.09.027
[6]	Purohit P, Amann M, Mathur R, et al. (2010) GAINS-Asia. Scenarios for cost-effective control of air pollution and greenhouse gases in India. International Institute for Applied systems Analysis (IIASA), Laxenburg, Austria. Available from: http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/9379/1/XO-10-061.pdf.
[7]	Sadavarte P, Venkataraman C (2014) Trends in multi-pollutant emissions from a technology-linked inventory for India: I. Industry and transport sectors. Atmos Environ 99: 353–364.
[8]	Planning Commission (2006) Integrated Energy Policy: Report of the Expert Committee. Government of India, New Delhi. Available from: http://planningcommission.gov.in /reports/genrep/rep_intengy.pdf.
[9]	GoI (2008) National Action Plan on Climate Change. Prime Minister's Council on Climate Change, Government of India (GoI), New Delhi. Available from: http://www.moef.nic.in/downloads/home/Pg01-52.pdf.
[10]	UNFCCC (2010) Letter to the Executive Secretary (30th January 2010). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Bonn. Available from: https://unfccc.int/files/meetings/cop_15/copenhagen_accord/application/pdf/indiacphaccord_app2.pdf.
[11]	Planning Commission (2014) The Final Report of the Expert Group on Low Carbon Strategies for Inclusive Growth. Government of India, New Delhi. Available from: http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports/genrep/rep_carbon2005.pdf.
[12]	UNFCCC (2015) India's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution: Working towards Climate Justice. Submitted to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Bonn. Available from: http://www4.unfccc.int/ndcregistry/PublishedDocuments /India%20First/INDIA%20INDC%20TO%20UNFCCC.pdf.
[13]	REN21 (2016) Renewables 2016 Global Status Report. REN21 Secretariat, Paris. Available from: http://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/GSR_2016_Full_Report_lowres.pdf.
[14]	OECD/IEA (2016) Energy, Climate Change and Environment–2016 Insights. International Energy Agency, Paris. Available from: http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications /publication/ECCE2016.pdf.
[15]	OECD (2016) OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook. OECD Agriculture statistics (database), Paris. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr-outl-data-en.
[16]	EC (2009) Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources and amending and subsequently repealing Directives 2001/77/EC and 2003/30/EC (Text with EEA relevance). European Parliament, Council publication date 23/04/2009. Available from: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32009L0028&from=EN.
[17]	Aradhey A (2017) India Biofuels Annual 2017. Global Agricultural Information Network (GAIN) Report Number IN-7075, USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, New Delhi. Available from:https://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Biofuels%20Annual_New0De%2lhi_India_6-27-2017.pdf.
[18]	IEA (2011) World Energy Outlook 2011. International Energy Agency (IEA), Paris. Available from: https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/WEO2011_WEB.pdf.
[19]	Borse P, Sheth A (2017) Technological and commercial update for first- and second-generation ethanol production in India. In: Chandel AK and Sukumaran RK (Eds.), Sustainable Biofuels Development in India, Springer, Berlin.
[20]	Grové J, Lant PA, Greig CR, et al. (2018) Is MSW derived DME a viable clean cooking fuel in Kolkata, India? Renew Energ 124: 50–60. doi: 10.1016/j.renene.2017.08.039
[21]	Sudhakar K, Premalatha M, Rajesh M (2014) Large-scale open pond algae biomass yield analysis in India: A case study. Int J Sust Energ 33: 304–315. doi: 10.1080/14786451.2012.710617
[22]	Sinha SK, Gupta A, Bharalee R (2016) Production of biodiesel from freshwater microalgae and evaluation of fuel properties based on fatty acid methyl ester profile. Biofuels 7: 105–121.
[23]	Sivaramakrishnan R, Incharoensakdi A (2017) Microalgae as feedstock for biodiesel production under ultrasound treatment-A review. Bioresource Technol 250: 877–887.
[24]	Lali A (2016) Biofuels for India: What, when and how. Curr Sci 110: 552–555. doi: 10.18520/cs/v110/i4/552-555
[25]	Newell P, Phillips J, Purohit P (2011) The political economy of clean development in India: CDM and beyond. IDS Bulletin 42: 89–96.
[26]	Phillips J, Newell P, Purohit P (2011) Governing Clean Energy in India. Working Paper 017, School of International Development, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK. Available from: http://re.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/clean%20energy%20india.pdf.
[27]	Planning Commission (2003) Report of the committee on development of biofuel. Govt. of India, New Delhi. Available from: http://planningcommission.nic.in/reports /genrep/cmtt_bio.pdf.
[28]	Gunatilake H (2011) Financial and Economic Assessment of Biodiesel Production and Use in India. ADB South Asia Working Paper Series No. 8, Asian Development Bank (ADB), Manila. Available from: https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/29416/financial-economic-assessment-biodiesel-production-use-india.pdf.
[29]	Gunatilake HM, Rolandholst D, Sugiyarto G, et al. (2011) Energy security and economics of Indian biofuel strategy in a global context. Adb Econ Work Paper 269: 256–258.
[30]	MNRE (2009) National Policy on Biofuels. Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Government of India, New Delhi, New Delhi. Available from: https://mnre.gov.in/file-manager/UserFiles/biofuel_policy.pdf.
[31]	OECD (2015) OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2014, OECD Publishing, Paris. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/agr_outlook-2014-en.
[32]	Aradhey A (2016) India Biofuels Annual 2016. Global Agricultural Information Network (GAIN) Report Number IN-6088, USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, New Delhi. Available from: https://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Biofuels%20Annual_New %20Delhi_India_6-24-2016.pdf.
[33]	GoI (2014) Auto Fuel Vision and Policy 2025. Report of the Expert Committee, Government of India, New Delhi, May 2014. Available from: http://petroleum.nic.in/docs/reports/autopol.pdf.
[34]	Damodaran H (2014) Oil companies to pay for ethanol boost to sugar industry. The Indian Express, New Delhi, 12^th December 2014. Available from: http://indianexpress.com/article/business/business-others/oil-companies-to-pay-for-ethanol-boost-to-sugar-industry/.
[35]	Bandyopadhyay KR (2015) Biofuel Promotion in India for Transport: Exploring the Grey Areas. The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), New Delhi. Available from: http://www.teriin.org/sites/default/files/2017-12/biofuel.pdf .
[36]	Aradhey A (2015) India Biofuels Annual 2015. Global Agricultural Information Network (GAIN) Report Number IN-5079, USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, New Delhi. Available from: https://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Biofuels%20Annual_New% 20Delhi_India_7-1-2015.pdf.
[37]	Kant P, (2011) The extraordinary collapse of Jatropha as a global biofuel. Environ Sci Technol 45: 7114–7115. doi: 10.1021/es201943v
[38]	Axelsson L, Franzén M, Ostwald M, et al. (2012) Jatropha cultivation in southern India: Assessing farmers' experiences. Biofuel Bioprod Bior 6: 246–256. doi: 10.1002/bbb.1324
[39]	Goswami K, Hazarika A (2016) Supply chain network of Jatropha based biodiesel industry in North East India. Sustain Product Consump 6: 38–50. doi: 10.1016/j.spc.2016.01.002
[40]	GoI (2015) Economic Survey, 2014-15. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Government of India (GoI), New Delhi. Available from: https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/budget2015-2016/es2014-15/echapter-vol1.pdf.
[41]	Purohit P, Fischer G (2014) Second Generation Biofuel Potential in India: Sustainability and Cost Considerations. UNEP Risø Centre on Energy, Climate and Sustainable Development, Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen. Available from: https://www.unenvironment.org/resources/report/second-generation-biofuel-potential-india-sustainability-and-cost-considerations.
[42]	Bringezu S, Schütz H, O'Brien M (2009) Towards Sustainable Production and Use of Resources: Assessing Biofuels. International Panel for Sustainable Resource Management, United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), Paris. Available from: http://www.compete-bioafrica.net/publications/publ/Assessing%20Biofuels-Summary-Web.pdf.
[43]	Somerville C, Youngs H, Taylor C, et al. (2010) Feedstocks for lignocellulosic biofuels. Science 329: 790–792. doi: 10.1126/science.1189268
[44]	Fairley P (2011) Introduction: Next generation biofuels. Nature 474: S2–S5.
[45]	Ackom EK, Alemagi D, Ackom NB, et al. (2013) Modern bioenergy from agricultural and forestry residues in Cameroon: Potential, challenges and the way forward. Energ Policy 63: 101–113. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2013.09.006
[46]	Wise M, Dooley J, Luckow P, et al. (2014) Agriculture, land use, energy and carbon emission impacts of global biofuel mandates to mid-century. Appl Energ 114: 763–773. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2013.08.042
[47]	Hudiburg TW, Wang WW, Khanna M, et al. (2016) Impacts of a 32-billion-gallon bioenergy landscape on land and fossil fuel use in the US. Nat Energy 1: 1–7.
[48]	GoI (2015) Agricultural Statistics 2015. Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Department of Agriculture, Cooperation & Farmers Welfare, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Government of India (GoI), New Delhi. Available from: https://eands.dacnet.nic.in/PDF/Pocket-Book2015.pdf.
[49]	Tripathi AK, Iyer PVR, Kandpal TC, et al. (1998) Assessment of availability and costs of some agricultural residues used as feedstocks for biomass gasification and briquetting in India. Energ Convers Manage 39: 1611–1618. doi: 10.1016/S0196-8904(98)00030-2
[50]	Purohit P, Tripathi AK, Kandpal TC (2006) Energetics of coal substitution by biomass briquetting in India. Energy 31: 1321–1331. doi: 10.1016/j.energy.2005.06.004
[51]	Kumar A, Purohit P, Rana S, et al. (2002) An approach to the estimation of the value of agricultural residues used as biofuels. Biomass Bioenerg 22: 195–203. doi: 10.1016/S0961-9534(01)00070-8
[52]	IARI (2012) Crop residues management with conservation agriculture: Potential, constraints and policy needs. Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi.
[53]	Rasmussen PE, Collins HP (1991) Long-term impacts of tillage, fertilizer, and crop residue on soil organic matter in temperate semi-arid regions. Adv Agron 45: 93–134. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2113(08)60039-5
[54]	Lal R (1995) The role of residues management in sustainable agricultural systems. J Sustain Agr 5: 51–78. doi: 10.1300/J064v05n04_06
[55]	IPCC (2012) Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation. Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Cambridge University Press, New York. Available from: https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/special-reports/srren/SRREN_FD_SPM_final.pdf.
[56]	Loulou R, Goldstein G, Noble K (2004) Documentation for the MARKAL Family of Models. Energy Technology Systems Analysis Program, International Energy Agency (IEA), Paris. Available from: https://iea-etsap.org/MrklDoc-I_StdMARKAL.pdf.
[57]	Loulou R, Shukla PR, Kanudia A (1997) Energy and Environment Strategies for a Sustainable Future: Analysis with the Indian MARKAL Model. Allied Publishers, New Delhi.
[58]	Dhar S, Shukla PR (2015) Low carbon scenarios for transport in India: Co-benefits analysis. Energ Policy 81: 186–198. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2014.11.026
[59]	Shukla PR, Dhar S, Mahapatra D (2008) Low-carbon society scenarios for India. Climate Policy 8: S156–S176. doi: 10.3763/cpol.2007.0498
[60]	Shukla PR, Dhar S, Victor DG, et al. (2009) Assessment of demand for natural gas from the electricity sector in India. Energ Policy 37: 3520–3535. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2009.03.067
[61]	Shukla PR, Dhar S, Fujino J (2010) Renewable energy and low carbon economy transition in India. J Renew Sustain Ener 2: 119.
[62]	Ravindranath NH, Somashekar HI, Nagaraja MS, et al. (2005) Assessment of sustainable non-plantation biomass resources potential for energy in India. Biomass Bioenerg 29: 178–190. doi: 10.1016/j.biombioe.2005.03.005
[63]	Raju SS, Shinoj P, Joshi PK (2009) Sustainable development of biofuels: Prospects and challenges. Econ Polit Weekly 44: 65–72.
[64]	Mittal S, Hanaoka T, Shukla PR, et al. (2015) Air pollution co-benefits of low carbon policies in road transport: A sub-national assessment for India. Environ Res Lett 10: 085006. doi: 10.1088/1748-9326/10/8/085006
[65]	PPAC (2013) Consumption of Petroleum Products. Petroleum Planning and Analysis Cell (PPAC), Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas (MoPNG), Government of India, New Delhi. Available from: http://ppac.org.in/.
[66]	Shinoj P, Raju SS, Chand R, et al. (2011) Biofuels inIndia: Future Challenges. Policy Brief No. 36. National Centre for AgriculturalEconomics and Policy Research (NCAP), New Delhi. Available from: http://www.environmentportal.in/files/file/Biofuels-in-India_Future-Challenges.pdf.
[67]	MoA (2012) Agricultural Statistics at a Glance. Ministry of Agriculture (MoA), New Delhi. Available from: https://eands.dacnet.nic.in/latest_2012.htm.
[68]	Chandran R, Thiagarajan R, Prathap DP (2005) Moisture stress management practices: adoption pattern and constraints involved. Cooperative Sugar 37: 37–39.
[69]	Aradhey A (2010) India Biofuels Annual 2010. Global Agricultural Information Network (GAIN) Report Number IN-1058, USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, New Delhi. Available from: https://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Biofuels%20Annual_New %20Delhi_India_7-1-2010.pdf.
[70]	Fischer G, Nachtergaele FO, Prieler S, et al. (2012) Global Agro‐Ecological Zones (GAEZ v3.0): Model Documentation. International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA), Laxenburg, Austria and Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Rome, Italy. Available from: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/gaez/docs/GAEZ_Model_Documentation.pdf.
[71]	Naylor R, Liska A, Burke M, et al. (2007) The ripple effect: Biofuels, food security, and the environment. Environ Sci Policy Sust Dev 49: 30–43. doi: 10.3200/ENVT.49.9.30-43
[72]	Leal MRLV, Nogueira LAH, Cortez LAB (2013) Land demand for ethanol production. Appl Energ 102: 266–271. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2012.09.037
[73]	Cobuloglu HI, Büyüktahtakın IE (2015) Food vs. biofuel: An optimization approach to the spatio-temporal analysis of land-use competition and environmental impacts. Appl Energ 140: 418–434.
[74]	Rulli MC, Bellomi D, Cazzoli A, et al. (2016) The water-land-food nexus of first-generation biofuels. Sci Rep 6: 22521. doi: 10.1038/srep22521
[75]	Lian PK, Ghazoul J (2008) Biofuels, biodiversity, and People: Understanding the conflicts and finding opportunities. Biol Conserv 141: 2450–2460. doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2008.08.005
[76]	Agoramoorthy G, Hsu MJ, Chaudhary S, et al. (2009) Can biofuel crops alleviate tribal poverty in India's drylands? Appl Energ 86: S118–S124. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.04.008
[77]	Phalan B (2009) The social and environmental impacts of biofuels in Asia: An overview. Appl Energ 86: S21–S29. doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.04.046
[78]	Tilman D, Socolow R, Foley JA, et al. (2009) Beneficial biofuels-the food, energy, and environment trilemma. Science 325: 270–271. doi: 10.1126/science.1177970
[79]	Ackom EK, Mabee WE, Saddler JN (2010) Industrial sustainability of competing wood energy options in Canada. Appl Biochem Biotech 162: 2259–2272. doi: 10.1007/s12010-010-9000-6
[80]	Wright MM, Brown RC (2007) Comparative economics of biorefineries based on the biochemical and thermochemical platforms. Biofuel Bioprod Bior 1: 49–56. doi: 10.1002/bbb.8
[81]	IEA (2013) Production Costs of Alternative Transport Fuels: Influence of Crude Oil Price and Technology Maturity. International Energy Agency (IEA), Paris.
[82]	IEA (2010) Sustainable Production of Second-Generation Biofuels: Potential and Perspectives in Major Economies and Developing countries. International Energy Agency (IEA), Paris.
[83]	Singh LK, Majumder CB, Ghosh S (2014) Development of sequential-co-culture system (Pichia stipitis and Zymomonas mobilis) for bioethanol production from Kans grass biomass. Biochem Eng J 82: 150–157. doi: 10.1016/j.bej.2013.10.023
[84]	Khare SK, Pandey A, Larroche C, et al. (2015) Current perspectives in enzymatic saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass. Biochem Eng J 102: 38–44. doi: 10.1016/j.bej.2015.02.033
[85]	Ajayebi A, Gnansounou E, Kenthorai RJ (2013) Comparative life cycle assessment of biodiesel from algae and jatropha: A case study of India. Bioresource Technol 150: 429–437. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2013.09.118
[86]	Chanakya HN, Mahapatra DM, Sarada R, et al. (2013) Algal biofuel production and mitigation potential in India. Mitig Adapt Strat GL 18: 113–136. doi: 10.1007/s11027-012-9389-z
[87]	Mohan SV, Nikhil GN, Chiranjeevi P, et al. (2016) Waste biorefinery models towards sustainable circular bioeconomy: Critical review and future perspectives. Bioresource Techno 215: 2–12. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2016.03.130
[88]	Basavaraj G, Rao PP, Basu K, et al. (2013) Assessing viability of bio-ethanol production from sweet sorghum in India. Energ Policy 56: 501–508. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2013.01.012
[89]	Vinutha KS, Rayaprolu L, Yadagiri K, et al. (2014) Sweet sorghum research and development in India: Status and prospects. Sugar Tech 16: 133–143. doi: 10.1007/s12355-014-0302-9
[90]	FAO (2015) FAOSTAT database collections. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, Rome. Available from: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home.
[91]	Mandade P, Bakshi BR, Yadav GD (2015) Ethanol from Indian agro-industrial lignocellulosic biomass-a life cycle evaluation of energy, greenhouse gases, land and water. Int J Life Cycle Ass 20: 1649–1658. doi: 10.1007/s11367-015-0966-8
[92]	GoI (2016) Economic Survey, 2015-16. Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, Government of India (GoI), New Delhi. Available from: https://www.indiabudget.gov.in/eBook_Economic_Survey2015/pdf/economic-survey.pdf.
[93]	Purohit P, Michaelowa A (2007) CDM potential of bagasse cogeneration in India. Energ Policy 35: 4779–4798. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2007.03.029
[94]	Purohit P (2009) Economic potential of biomass gasification projects under clean development mechanism in India. J Clean Prod 17: 181–193. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2008.04.004
[95]	Ravindranath NH, Lakshmi CS, Manuvie R, et al. (2011) Biofuel production and implications for land use, food production and environment in India. Energ Policy 39: 5737–5745. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2010.07.044
[96]	Singh J (2015) Overview of electric power potential of surplus agricultural biomass from economic, social, environmental and technical perspective: A case study of Punjab. Renew Sust Energ Rev 42: 286–297. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2014.10.015
[97]	Purohit P, Dhar S (2015) Biofuel Roadmap for India. UNEP DTU Partnership, Technical University of Denmark. Available from: http://orbit.dtu.dk/files/120569025/Biofuel_Roadmap _for_India.pdf.
[98]	Sims RE, Mabee W, Saddler JN, et al. (2010) An overview of second generation biofuel technologies. Bioresource Technol 101: 1570–1580. doi: 10.1016/j.biortech.2009.11.046
[99]	BRAI (2015) Biomass Resource Atlas of India (BRAI). Department of Aerospace Engineering, Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bangalore. Available from: http://lab.cgpl.iisc.ernet.in/Atlas/.
[100]	Raju SS, Parappurathu S, Chand R, et al. (2012) Biofuels in India: Potential, Policy and Emerging Paradigms. Policy Paper 27, National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research (NCAP), New Delhi. Available from: http://re.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/file/Biofuels%20in%20India.pdf.
[101]	Sharma SP (2010) Mini-Thermal Power Projects Turning Unviable in Malwa Raw Material, Agriculture Waste, Prohibitively Expensive. Tribune News Service, 20^th December 2010. Available from: http://www.tribuneindia.com/2010/20101221/biz.htm#6.
[102]	Daugaard T, Mutti LA, Wright MM, et al. (2015) Learning rates and their impacts on the optimal capacities and production costs of biorefineries. Biofuel Bioprod Bior 9: 82–94. doi: 10.1002/bbb.1513
[103]	UNFCCC (2015) Paris Agreement. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Bonn.
[104]	Lucas PL, Shukla PR, Chen W, et al. (2013) Implications of the international reduction pledges on long-term energy system changes and costs in China and India. Energ Policy 63: 1032–1041. doi: 10.1016/j.enpol.2013.09.026
[105]	Frankfurt School-UNEP Centre/BNEF (2016) Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2016. Frankfurt School and UNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate and Sustainable Energy Finance. Available from: http://fs-unep-centre.org/sites/default/files/publications /globaltrendsinrenewableenergyinvestment2016lowres_0.pdf.
[106]	BNEF (2011) Next-Generation Ethanol: What's in it for India? Bloomberg New Energy Finance (BNEF). Available from: http://www.novozymes.com/en/sustainability/benefits-for-the-world/biobased-economy/white-papers-on-biofuels/Documents/bnef_13-05-2011_next-generation_ethanol_in_india.pdf.
[107]	Jain N (2014) Emission of air pollutants from crop residue burning in India. Aerosol Air Qual Res 14: 422–430.
[108]	IEA (2013) World Energy Outlook 2013. International Energy Agency (IEA), Paris.
[109]	Government to train 40 crore people under Skill India initiative. The Economic Times, 15^th July 2015. Available from: http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/48090083.cms? intenttarget=no&utm_source=contentofinterest&utm_medium=text&utm_campaign=cppst.

Reader Comments

Your name:*

Email:*
© 2018 the Author(s), licensee AIMS Press. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)